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UNITED STATES TARIFF COMMISSION 


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WASHINGTON 


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TARIFF INFORMATION SERIES—No. 8 


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HE BRUSH INDUSTRY 


COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS IN 
THE UNITED STATES AND IN FOREIGN COUN¬ 
TRIES—TARIFF LAWS AFFECTING BRUSHES— 
COURT AND TREASURY DECISIONS 

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WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1918 






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UNITED STATES TARIFF COMMISSION. 

Office: 1322 New York Avenue, Washington, D. C. 


COMMISSIONERS 


F. W. Taussig, Chairman. 

Thomas Walker Page, Vice Chairman. 
David J. Lewis. 

William Kent. 

William S. Culbertson. 

Edward P. Costigan. 

William M. Steuart, Secretary and statistician. 


n. of B. 

NOV 19 1913 



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CONTENTS. 



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Page. 


Introduction. 5 

I. Trade and competition.. 7 

Toilet brushes. 9 

Paint and varnish brushes. 14 

Artists’ brushes and hair pencils. 15 

Imports. 16 

Exports. 17 

Duties collected. 18 

II. The manufacture of brushes in the United States. 19 

Summary of the industry. 21 

Present conditions and disturbances due to the war. . . . 22 

Raw materials and their origin. 24 

Bristles. 24 

Bristle markets, i. 24 

Substitutes for bristles. 26 

Hairs. 26 

Vegetable fibers. 27 

Bone. 27 

Pyroxylin plastics. 27 

Wood. 28 

Adhesives. 28 

Miscellaneous materials. 28 

Methods and processes of manufacture. 28 

Simple brushes—paint and varnish: 

Preparation of bristles. 29 

Brush making. 29 

Metal-bound flat brushes. 30 

Metal-bound round and oval brushes. 30 

Chisel-pointed brushes. 30 

Leather-bound brushes. 30 

Vulcanized rubber brushes. 30 

Applying the adhesives. 30 

Other operations. 30 

Compound brushes: 

Preparation of bristles. 31 

Preparation of backs or handles. 31 

Hand-drawn, veneered or two-piece brushes. 31 

Machine-drawn brushes. 31 

Handmade, trepanned, solid-back brushes. 32 

Staple or anchor fastened, solid-back brushes. 32 

Composition-face brushes. 33 

Rubber cushion brushes. 33 

Cement-set brushes.- -. - 33 

Pitch-set brushes. 34 


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CONTENTS. 


III. Review of the brush industry and trade in principal foreign countries- 

France. 

Germany. 

England. 

Austria-Hungary.. 

Japan. 

IV. General statistics. 

Comparative statement of domestic production for the census years 

1849, 1859, 1869, 1909, and 1914. 

General imports of brushes into the United States by countries, 1910 

to 1917. 

Imports for consumption, 1894 to 1917. 

Rates of duty and revenue derived, 1910 to 1917. 

Domestic exports of the United States, by countries, 1913 to 1917.... 
Comparison of imports, revenue, and rates of duty for representative 

years under each of the tariff laws of 1894, 1897, 1909, and 1913- 

Rates of duty and tariff description under tariff acts of 1883, 1890, 

1894, 1897, 1909, and 1913. 

Y. Tariff legislation affecting brushes. 

Review of tariff laws. 

Abstract of Treasury and court decisions relating to brushes. 

Bibliography... 

















INTRODUCTION. 


This pamphlet is one of a- series which the United States Tariff 
Commission is publishing as an aid to the study and clearer under¬ 
standing of the tariff and its bearing on various industries. It is 
divided into five parts. 

First. Competition among domestic manufacturers in the various 
branches of the industry; foreign trade, as shown by imports, exports, 
and duties collected. 

Second. The status of the brush industry in the United States, in¬ 
cluding definitions and general information in regard to processes of 
manufacture for the different kinds of brushes, as assembled from 
official publications and statements made by manufacturers. 

Third. Review of the brush industry and trade in foreign coun¬ 
tries, compiled from United States Consular Reports and foreign 
official publications. 

Fourth. Statistical tables for the manufacture of brushes in the 
United States; imports and exports for a series of years; revenue 
received; and rates of duty for representative years under each of the 
four tariff acts—1894, 1897, 1909, and 1913. 

Fifth. Synopsis of the provisions of the various tariff laws relating 
to brushes and the raw materials consumed in their manufacture; 
Abstract of Court and Treasury Decisions. 

The Commission has had the services of CHARLES F. YAUCH, special expert, in the preparation 
of this pamphlet. 


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TRADE AND COMPETITION. 











TRADE AND COMPETITION. 


Competition is keen among domestic manufacturers of brushes, as 
there is no association to regulate the trade. The industry has 
profited by the partial elimination, during the war, of European com¬ 
petition and by the large orders for brushes by the Government, 
the Red Cross, and foreign countries whose trade before the war was 
supplied by the brush-producing countries of Europe. 

Official statistics do not show the quantity, kinds, or grades of 
brushes imported; the information herein given in regard to the 
character of foreign competition is therefore largely from statements 
of manufacturers, importers, and dealers. 

Toilet brushes .—Foreign competition in the past has been almost 
entirely on toilet brushes. It has been estimated that from 50 to 60 
per cent of the toilet brushes used in the United States are imported. 

The following statements were made at the conference of the United 
States Tariff Commission with representatives of the Brush Industry, 
held in New York City, March 25-26, 1918. 

Before the Ways and Means Committee some years ago the statement was made to 
me, “There are eleven or twelve million dollars worth of brushes manufactured in 
this country, and you only import two or three million?” Take the paintbrush 
industry away and what do you find? You find that we barely make 40 per cent of 
the toilet brushes used in the country and that the other 60 per cent is supplied from 
abroad. 

The toilet-brush industry battles with labor and conditions in Japan and Europe 
which dwarfed its development in this country to such a degree that the industry 
is practically given over to special lines only, as none of us can make a full line of 
toilet brushes, whether hair, tooth, or other shapes, against the keen competition that 
we meet here. (From the statement of Mr. H. Alexander of the Henry L. Hughes 
Co., manufacturers.) 

In normal times I think over 50 per cent of the toilet brushes used in this country 
are made in Europe and Asia. (From the statement of Mr. William Cordes, of the 
Florence Manufacturing Co.) 

Importers, on the other hand, claim that they encounter strong 
competition from domestic manufacturers of toilet brushes. 

I wish to differ with some of the testimony already given to the effect that the 
importers do 60 per cent of the total business of toilet brushes, leaving 40 per cent for 
the domestic makers. 

The tariff on importations of sorted bristles is 7 cents a pound. So much per pound, 
and for that reason a man can import bristle and put it into a paintbrush or into a 
hairbrush, where the handle is of little value, much cheaper than he can import 

9 


78328—18-2 




10 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


the finished article and pay a 35 per cent duty on it, and that is the reason that the 
domestic paintbrush makers and the hairbrush makers have the largest part of the 
business. The business left tt> the importers, as has been stated, is the toothbrush 
business and the better grade of hairbrushes, hand drawn. 

In Japan prices have gone consistently up since the beginning of the war, partly 
due to the increased cost of labor and partly to the increased cost of raw material, and 
to a certain extent on account of the buying of other markets, such as South America, 
London, Australia, and New Zealand, which markets were not chiefly supplied by 
Japan before the war. We find they are paying prices constantly which are hard 
to obtain in this market, and at times it has been difficult to obtain supplies in quan¬ 
tities sufficient to meet the demand here for that reason. 

We are perhaps a little jealous of the position of American makers. Through adver¬ 
tising done extremely well they have developed trade-marks of value which really 
place their products beyond price competition. We would like to be in that position 
ourselves, but unfortunately we are not. 

Foreign competition after the war is overestimated. The scarcity of bristles in 
every brush-producing nation will prevent any accumulation of stock to be dumped 
here. The countries of Europe are fighting with every man who is able to stand on 
his feet. They are cut off from their source of supply of raw material; they are dis¬ 
organized and lack capital to increase their production rapidly. Their prices have 
been and will be constantly advancing much faster than here. Profits may be cut 
out a little, but if the production is small it will have but little effect on conditions 
here for some years after peace is declared. (From the statement of Mr. W. B. Gibson, 
importer.) 

On the cheaper grades of hairbrushes we can not compete. The United States 
Government, in buying goods for the soldiers, buys domestic hair brushes, and we 
can not quote them anything as good at as low a figure. The United States Navy buys 
military brushes made in this country, and we are unable to quote on those brushes. 
We can not meet the domestic prices. The only business we can get from the Govern¬ 
ment is the toothbrush business. The Government requires a low-priced brush, 
something that sells for about 10 cents apiece. This is all the soldiers can afford to 
pay for toothbrushes in the cantonments, and that is the only business we can get. 
(From the statement of Mr. G. S. Gibson, importer.) 

The brush business * * * is largely controlled in the United States by the 
domestic manufacturers, with the exception of the toothbrush industry. 

The domestic manufacturers will bring up the argument that they are unable to 
compete with the French article on account of the price. But in the course of their 
production they make use of a great many demonstrations. For instance, they will 
go to a department store and they will put into that department store a demonstrator 
or a sales person, which costs them so much per week, and that must be taken into 
account in considering the cost of production of the brush. (From the statement of 
Mr. Louis d’Angelo of the Cauvigny Co.) 

I believe the main point to be brought out is whether or not the domestic brushes 
can compete with the foreign-made article. I maintain that they can. My experience 
has been that when we submit (to Japanese manufacturers) a cement-faced brush, an 
aluminum-faced brush, a porcelain-faced brush, a two-piece wire-drawn brush, or a 
solid-backed machine-made brush, we invariably receive a reply that nothing can 
be done on that class of goods. That takes in bath, hair, nail, hat, and cloth brushes. 
(From the statement of Mr. O. Zincke, importer.) 

The total production of toilet brushes in the United States, accord¬ 
ing to the Federal Census of 1914, was valued at $3,312,870. The 
total value of all brushes imported amounted to $2,180,853 for the 
fiscal year 1914. The last named amount does not represent the 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


11 


value of the goods laid down, duty paid, in the United States, but 
the actual market value or wholesale price, at the time of exporta¬ 
tion to the United States, in the principal markets of the country 
whence exported. In comparing production and importation, 
allowance should be made for consular fees, ocean freights, marine 
insurance, duties, other charges, and importers’ profit. 

loilet brushes, such as tooth, hair, nail, bath, cloth, hat, and shav¬ 
ing brushes, are imported in normal times from France, Japan, 
Germany, England, and Austria. The French product is noted for 
its artistic and graceful design and is generally of the solid-back, 
handmade, trepanned type. The English brush is very different from 
the French product in appearance. With the exception of tooth and 
shaving brushes, the English type is a two-piece, hand-drawn brush, 
the parts of which are fastened together with screws, which add to 
the general effect of solidity and substantial appearance. The highest 
grades of brushes imported come from these two countries. They 
largely supply a class of trade which calls for certain special English 
or French makes, or which simply prefers the foreign to the domestic 
article. 

The representative of a French company made the following 
statement: 

Aside from making the cheap goods with which we are unable to compete, domestic 
manufactures also make a very fine grade of brushes. The S. E.’ Howard’s Sons & Co. 
has the distinction of making as good a line as any that could be purchased in Europe. 
The firm of Whiting & Adams, of Boston, make the very best line of hairbrushes, 
without exception, that can be produced. * * * 

The sale of French brushes in this country is not due to their beautiful finish, 
because they can make just as good a finish here, but it is due to the fact that there 
is a certain element of people who like to have something French and who are willing 
to pay the prices. (From the statement of Mr. Louis D’Angelo of the Cauvigny Co., 
importers.) 

An American manufacturer of high-grade brushes gave the follow¬ 
ing testimony: 

In normal times we have difficulty in meeting the competition of Dupont, of France, 
and Kent, of England; since 1914 we have had but little competition. (From the 
statement of Mr. W. C. Howard, manufacturer.) 

Brushes imported from Germany and Austria are not, as a rule, the 
equal of those imported from France and England, though Austria 
has exported to the United States some brushes which rival the 
French product in style. The cheaper and medium-grade goods are 
supplied by Germany, where the styles of other countries are copied 
or imitated. Although Germany and Austria follow largely the 
hand system of drawing, they also produce machine-made brushes, 
which are exported to the United States and which come in competi¬ 
tion with similar goods in this country. Japan’s product is more 
or less a copy of the designs produced in other countries, and she 


12 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


exports many of the cheaper grades. In the last few years the 
quality of Japanese brushes has improved, and Japan has overcome 
to some extent the unfavorable impression that her product is cheap 
and inferior. 

Although toothbrushes are used more extensively in the United 
States than elsewhere, the domestic production is small. There are 
not more than three or four factories in this country engaged in the 
manufacture of toothbrushes, and none of them make toothbrushes 
exclusively. They do not make a general line of toothbrushes, but 
produce only those of special device, or under patents, which retail 
from 35 to 50 cents each. In England and France bone handles are used; 
in Austria, Germany, and Japan pyroxylin plastics as well as bone 
are used; in the United States pyroxylin plastics are used almost 
exclusively. Statistics from Japanese official sources show that Japan 
increased her exports of toothbrushes to the United States from 
647,235 dozens, valued at $190,713, or 29 cents per dozen, in 1913, the 
last full year before the war began, to 1,421,863 dozens, valued at 
$444,736, or 31 cents per dozen, in 1916. The exports for the year 
1913, however, were the smallest, both in quantity and value, in the 
10-year period 1907-1916. 

A leading manufacturer made the following statement relative to 
the toothbrush industry: 

I think the United States is more than half the world’s market for toothbrushes. 
When I was in England in 1914 one of the leading advertising agencies told me that if 
we wanted to introduce the brushes into the Kingdom we would first have to educate 
the people to use the brushes; less than 10 per cent of the population used tooth¬ 
brushes. In France it was less. - In Germany it was considerably more. (From the 
statement of Mr. William Cordes, of the Florence Manufacturing Co.) 

Next to toothbrushes, hairbrushes are imported in greater quan¬ 
tities than any other kind of toilet brushes. The competition be¬ 
tween the domestic and foreign-made hairbrush differs from that in 
toothbrushes. The cheaper grades of the foreign toothbrush have 
little or no competition in the domestic market, whereas competition 
between the foreign and domestic hairbrush is keenest in the cheaper 
and medium grades. This is due in large measure to the difference 
between methods of manufacture employed here and abroad. The 
American hairbrush is mainly machine made; that is, the tufts are 
set by machinery, or the bristles are sifted through holes in a die and 
afterwards embedded in a composition. The use of machinery per¬ 
mits a greater output per employee than the hand-drawn method, 
which is followed in Europe and Japan. The hand-drawn method 
has, apparently, been attempted in the United States, but it is not 
in general use because the wages paid in America are higher than in 
Europe or Japan, where the work is done for the most part in homes 
by women and children. 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


13 


lhe film of Gerts Lombard & Co., of Chicago, one of our best known and highest 
grade firms attempted to make what is known as the hand-drawn solid back brush— 
we call it solid back because it is not split but made of one piece of wood—and they 
have gone out of that particular industry. It is practically impossible to make those 
brushes. (Statement of Mr. H. Alexander.) 

We can make them, but it is not practicable to do so profitably. (Statement of Mr. 
William Cordes.) 

Domestic manufacturers • claim that foreign-made brushes are 
largely the product of home work, but that claim is denied by repre¬ 
sentatives of foreign manufacturers. 

It is a known fact that the hairbrushes, toothbrushes, and all other toilet brushes 
imported into this country are largely the product of home labor, and are mostly the 
work of women and children. Whole villages in France, Hungary, Saxony, and else¬ 
where are given over to this industry without sanitary regulations of any kind and 
without restrictions as to the hours of labor. This conation is greatly intensified in 
Japan, which is sending in more hair, tooth, and nail brushes to the United States 
than any European country, and which has but four large brush factories that we 
know of. * * * Toothbrushes in Japan are almost distinctly products of child 
labor. Contractors and middle men will distribute handles and bristles to women 
and children at their houses and call there at least once a week to gather in the made- 
up brushes, paying a very small sum for doing the work. (Statement of Mr. H. 
Alexander, of the Henry L. Hughes Co., manufacturer.) 

There is no home production in connection with our factory (E. Dupont & Co.) in 
France. I think our factory is pretty nearly as large and as complete as any factory 
of its kind in the world. The sanitary conditions there I do not think could be im¬ 
proved upon. There is absolutely no work done outside of our factory. * * * 
Women and girls, from 16 to 17 years and older, but not children, are engaged in our 
factory. In fact, they are very strict about their schooling in France. (From the 
statement of Mr. F.- E. O’Callaghan, importer.) 

The only work that goes into the home (in France) is that of inserting the bris¬ 
tles into the brushes. The women are unable to leave their homes on account of 
domestic conditions, etc., and the consequence is the factory takes to them the ma¬ 
terial and when the work is completed collects it from them. So far as the shaping 
of the bones is concerned, polishing, washing the bristle and preparing it, all those 
articles are done in the factories, which are inspected regularly by the authorities 
to see that everything is perfectly clean and sanitary. (From the statement of Mr. 
Louis D’Angelo, of the Cauvigny Co., importers.) 

Germany and Austria make use of automatic machinery in the pro¬ 
duction of hairbrushes. At present (1918) there is little competition 
in the high-grade brushes on account of the restricted importations 
from France and England. The French ivory hairbrush was much in 
vogue a few years ago and was instrumental in establishing the popu¬ 
larity of French-made brushes. Japan is now (1918) exporting 
greater quantities of hairbrushes to the United States than ever 
before. In 1913 Japanese exports of hairbrushes to the United 
States amounted to 165,476 dozen valued at $292,007, or $1.76 per 
dozen, and in 1916 to 261,063 dozen valued at $451,344, or $1.73 per 
dozen. 


14 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


The following statement regarding competitive conditions was 
made by a representative of Japanese manufacturers: 

I think it can be said without contradiction that the importers have lost the busi¬ 
ness in hairbrushes which retail at anything from 50 cents down. We have not been 
able to get any goods that would compare in service with the goods produced in this 
country. * * * In the cheaper grade of brushes, on account of competition with 
the American makers, it is not possible to put in pure stiff bristles and they (Japanese) 
use the cheap, soft bristles. They must put something else in to give it sufficient 
stiffness. 

You do not find mixed bristles on the American market used by the American 
makers, and in that lies the difference in value between the American cheap hair¬ 
brush and the Japanese cheap brush. In a cheap hairbrush the public wants a good 
stiff pure bristle, and they do not care anything about the back. It is on that account 
that we have not been able to increase our business on cheap hairbrushes in this 
country. Those competitive conditions are recognized in the trade, and for that 
reason the American cheap brush sells better than the imported cheap brush. (From 
the statement of Mr. W. B. Gibson, importer.) 

What has been said in regard to hairbrushes is also true of nail, 
bath, cloth, and hat brushes. These brushes can be made by ma¬ 
chinery, and it is on the strength of the greater output per employee, 
as well as factory organization and selling methods, that the domestic 
producer can compete with the foreign hand-drawn method. Shaving 
brushes are imported only in small quantities; the competition is 
among domestic producers. 

Paint and varnish brushes .—There is little foreign competition in the 
heavy lines of paint and varnish brushes. They represent only a 
small proportion of the total brushes imported. Before the war, Ger¬ 
many was about the only country that exported this class of goods to 
the United States. Paint and varnish brushes are now (1918) being 
offered to the American trade by Japanese representatives, but their 
brushes are said to be cheap and poorly constructed. Japanese 
workers are not skilled in the art of making paintbrushes and up 
to the present time American manufacturers have felt no compe¬ 
tition. 

The American paintbrush manufacturers have had all they could do right in their 
own country. We have not gone after the export trade to any great extent for the 
simple reason that our capacity has been limited owing to the scarcity of labor. We 
can not depend on any machine to produce our goods; we have to depend upon hand 
labor all the way through. * * * They (American manufacturers) tried to sell 
goods in South America, and they found the German product very strongly intrenched. 
* * * To-day a large percentage of the brushes used in those countries are either 
German, English, or French goods. * * * Heretofore there have been some few 
paint brushes imported from Germany, and it is said that Japan is now trying to catch 
the American production. I have seen several samples, and they are very crude 
compared to ours. The German product is mostly a soft hair brush. Some of the 
manufacturers make those lines but we do not. We do not meet any competition 
from abroad. (From the statement of Mr. George Barth, of the Bigelow Brush Co., 
manufacturers.) 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


15 


Before the war we had made attempts to export goods, but the German competition 
was so severe, we never found it possible to do that profitably, and for that reason our 
line of exports has been very small. Another reason for the small amount of exports 
is the fact that the models of the German manufacturers were different from the 
American models, and we never discovered that there was enough profit in the German 
models to make it pay to copy them. (From the statement of Mr. J. H. Heroy, of 
Rennous, Kleinle & Co., manufacturers.) 

The small imports of paintbrushes may be attributed partly to the 
difference in style between the American and foreign models, to the 
established reputation of the American brush, to the fact that the 
trades for various reasons prefer the American make, and to the 
nature of the brush itself, which is, perhaps, the chief reason. The 
materials used in the manufacture of the paintbrush enter largely 
into its value, and therefore the ad valorem duty is an effective pro¬ 
tection. 

Artists’ brushes and hair pencils .—These brushes are made of soft 
hairs, and are used by artists, decorators, stripers, and letterers. 
The volume of production in the United States is small compared 
with the total production of all brushes. Some manufacturers of 
paint and varnish brushes handle artist’s brushes as dealers, ob¬ 
taining their stock from manufacturers who make a specialty of this 
line; others carry a line of imported artist’s brushes. No machinery 
is used in the production of these brushes; they are made entirely by 
hand labor and much of the work is given out to be done in homes. 
Although the labor put in the American made article is less than in 
the foreign, the labor cost is relatively greater. 

Some of this work is given out. The putting of the hair into the brush is often done 
outside, but the finishing of the goods, the extracting of the short hairs which are in 
every brush, etc., is all done in the factory. 

There is a big field for that home work. We have in New York City, I will guar¬ 
antee, 100,000 women who would like to do this work at home. I have picked up in 
a few weeks 100 extra hands in that way to make these cheap goods. I can not keep 
that up because the Japanese competition has spoiled my plans. These women would 
like to make the goods at home, because their housework only takes about half of 
their time, and a great many of them have absolutely no pin money whatever. If 
they can make $5 or $6 a week and only be employed half their time, they are very 
glad to do it. I think for my industry that is the greatest labor market in the world. 

That work could not be done in New York State except through the granting of a 
license by the authorities. The authorities give licenses to any houses where the 
landlord allows the house to be investigated. The license is given to any house with 
three or four tenants; if it has less than three tenants no license is required. We 
have lots of houses licensed in Mulberry Street, right in the Italian district, where 
there will be anywhere from 12 to 20 families in a house. The landlords get a permit. 
(From the statement of Mr. A. Baker, manufacturer.) 

Before the war 90 per cent of the importations came from Germany. 
Since German competition has been eliminated, this branch of the 
industry has had some prosperous years. The American manufac- 


16 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


turer is not without foreign competition, however, as the Japanese 
have entered this field also. It is claimed that their brushes do not 
point up well and therefore are unsatisfactory. * The Japanese have 
not as yet acquired the technical knowledge to become a serious 
competitor in the American market. 

Before the war there was imported to the United States from Germany a very large 
quantity of soft hair brushes made of squirrel and similar hair. Few of this class of 
goods were made in the United States simply because they could be made much 
cheaper in Germany, owing to much lower labor costs. Since the imports from 
Germany ceased, some of the American manufacturers of soft ham goods have done a 
fairly profitable business, of course at a considerably higher price than before, as labor 
prices naturally were higher than those in Germany. Now you will find that Japanese 
manufacturers are offering these soft hair goods at prices below the actual cost price 
of the same goods made by American makers. (From the statement of Mr. William 
Cordes, of the Florence Manufacturing Co.) 

In the last few months a good many of our styles have not been selling at all because 
Japanese competition has come in. Any large jobber can go to any Japanese importer, 
of which there are about 25 in this city, and that importer will send my sample to 
Japan, have it copied and they will produce it for less money than I can produce it 
myself. * * * I have no reason to believe that the goods are being shipped into 
this country at less than the cost of production abroad, because generally speaking, 
the Japanese price to-day is 20 per cent higher than the German price in normal times. 
I think it is legitimate, but I believe when times are normal the Japanese appetite 
will be so keen to keep this line of manufacture that she will undersell Germany. I 
do not think the German product was dumped on this country at an unreasonably low 
price, but the people in Germany seem to work so unreasonably cheap. (From the 
statement of Mr. A. Baker, manufacturer.) 

American producers of household, shoe, horse, mill or machine 
brushes, and a great variety of special brushes, have little or no 
foreign competition. The small imports of these brushes are ac¬ 
counted for by the fact that some of the brushes can be made by 
machine, a method in which Americans excel, while others are of 
such peculiar shape and design that the demands of the trade can 
be more quickly supplied by the American manufacturer than by 
the importer, who is not apt to carry an extensive line of special 
brushes. 

Imports .—The total value of the general imports of brushes of all 
kinds for the years 1910 to 1914, inclusive, averaged $2,062,114. 
In 1915 the imports fell to $1,644,189 and in 1916 to $1,292,801, 
but rose in 1917 to $2,209,976, the highest amount reached, with 
the exception of 1911 when the amount was $2,241,066. 

Previous to the war about two-thirds of the imports came from 
France, Germany, and England. The value of the imports from 
France and England has decreased more than one-half since 1914. 
The imports from Germany amounted to only $1,305 in 1917 
as against $514,240 in 1914. The decline in imports from Austria- 
Hungary, although relatively large, has had little effect on the total 


s 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 17 

value imported, as the imports from that country have never been 
in excess of $40,000. 

The increase in the imports from Japan has more than offset the 
decline in imports from Europe. For the years 1910 to 1914, inclu¬ 
sive, the imports from Japan averaged about 30 per cent of the 
value of the total imports. In 1915 they amounted to $757,421; in 
1916 to $843,020, and in 1917 to $1,800,300. During these three 
years they formed 46, 65 and 81 per cent, respectively, of the total 
imports of brushes from all countries. 

Exports .—Comparatively few brushes are exported from the 
United States. In 1914 the total domestic exports amounted to 
$449,909, or less than 3 per cent of the total production for that 
year. Exports increased to $604,916 in 1915, and to $1,132,262 in 
1916, but dropped in 1917' to $863,630. The increase in 1916 was 
due to the large purchases made for the British Government. The 
exports to England were: $27,213 in 1914; $301,865 in 1915; $621,104 
in 1916; and $70,038 in 1917. The decline in the value of brushes 
exported to England in 1917 was due directly to restrictions placed 
on shipments by the British Government. 

In 1915 and 1916 our export trade in brushes with England was 
greater than with any other country; with this exception Canada 
has been the chief country to which the United States has exported 
brushes. In prewar times Canada took between 40 and 50 per cent 
of our exports; since 1914 her share has varied from 13 to 29 per 
cent, the variation being due partly to a decrease, in some years, in 
value of the exports to Canada and partly to relatively larger increases 
to other countries. 

Exports to other specified countries for the years 1914 and 1917, 
respectively, were as follows: Cuba, $31,717 and $81,252; Mexico, 
$17,640 and $56,849; Argentina, $10,561 and $39,994; Australia, 
$34,572 and $47,307; Brazil, $2,440 and $29,666. The increase in 
the export trade is traceable to the war. Those countries which 
depended upon Germany, England, and France have now turned to 
the United States for their supply of brushes. Domestic manu¬ 
facturers, have not as a rule, sought an export trade either before 
or since the war began. They look upon the increase as temporary 
and believe that Germany, England, and France,, in order to regain 
their former trade, will sell brushes at prices so low that the American 
manufacturer will not be able to compete. 

The kinds of brushes exported are not shown in official statistics 
but from other sources it is learned that our exports, especially those 
to Canada, are mainly paint and varnish brushes. Some of the large 
paint and varnish houses handle brushes as a side line in connection 
with their regular export and domestic trade. Toilet brushes are 
78328—18-3 



18 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


also exported, but they are usually brushes with established trade¬ 
marks. 

Duties collected .—The revenue derived from the importation of 
brushes averaged $625,000 for the fiscal years 1907 to 1909, inclusive; 
$804,000 for the years 1910 to 1913, inclusive; and $650,000 for the 
years 1914 to 1917, inclusive. The average for the last period was 
greatly affected by the war, which caused a large decrease in the value 
of the imports for the fiscal years 1915 and 1916, before-the imports 
from Japan had offset the decrease from Europe. The first period 
was for the last three years under the Dingley tariff; the second 
period for four years under the Payne tariff; and the third period 
for four years under the Underwood tariff. 








t 



THE MANUFACTURE OF BRUSHES IN THE 

UNITED STATES. 


19 


















. 










































/ 




< 



















THE MANUFACTURE OF BRUSHES IN THE UNITED STATES. 


The manufacture of brushes in New England began in the vicinity 
of Boston, and that locality has remained an important center of the 
industry in the United States. The historian of the town of Medfield, 
Mass., records: “In 1808 the manufacture of brushes commenced 
here and was a new industry in this section of the country.” The 
brushes made in Medfield were an improvement over the English 
brushes and superseded them entirely during the War of 1812. The 
superiority of the American brushes was not, however, entirely 
responsible for the disappearance of the foreign product, as the war 
itself stopped all trade between the United States and England and 
gave American producers an opportunity to establish their goods in 
the American market. Brushes were also manufactured in Lansing- 
burg, now part of Troy, N. Y., as early as 1810, and the industry 
continues to be an important one in that city. 

Summary of the industry in the United States .—The latest official 
statistics of the production of brushes are contained in the Census of 
Manufactures, 1914. In that year the industry was carried on in 359 
establishments with capital amounting to $14,332,768. These estab¬ 
lishments gave employment to 7,213 wage earners on the average 
during the year. The cost of materials was $9,326,655 and the 
value of the products $17,894,476. Massachusetts, with a product 
valued at $3,910,000, was first in production, but was close!} 7 fol¬ 
lowed by New York with $3,835,000. Other States with a product 
in excess of $1,000,000 w'ere Maryland, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, 
and Pennsylvania. 

Data for the industry as a whole and for the diherent branches, as 
defined by the Bureau of the Census, are shown in the following 
condensed table: 


Items. 

^ . 

Total. 

Toilet. 

Paint 

and 

varnish. 

All other. 

Number of establishments.. 

' 359 

7,213 
$14,333 
$3,461 
$9,327 
$17,894 
$8.567 

41 

1,208 
$2.329 
$660 
$1,109 
i $2,675 
$1,566 

45 
2,420 
$6,483 
$1,262 
$4,208 

2 $7,303 
$3,095 

273 
3,585 
$5,521 
$1,539 
$4,010 
3 £7,916 
$3,906 

Wage earners (average number). 

Capital (thousands).•.. 

Wages (thousands). 

Cost of material (thousands). 

Value of product (thousands). 

Value added by manufacture (thousands). 


1 Toilet brushes to the value of $545,501 were made by paint and varnish and other brush manufacturers, 
and to the value of $92,363 by manufacturers in other industries. 

2 Paint and varnish brushes to the value of $42,500 were reported by the “toilet” and “all other” groups, 
and to the value of $309,169 by establishments assigned to other classifications, principally “paints.” 

3 “All other ” brushes to the value of $260,884 were made by toilet and paint brush manufacturers, and to 
the value of $685,399 by establishments in other classifications, principally “upholstering materials, not 
elsewhere specified,” and brooms. 

21 

























22 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


Present conditions and disturbances due to the war .—The domestic 
production of brushes has been greatly stimulated by the partial 
elimination of European competition, increased purchases by the 
United States Government for the use of the Army and Navy, larger 
orders from foreign countries whose trade was formerly supplied by 
Europe, and increased activities in other industries. 

In the first year of the war the British Government and the French Government had 
commissioners in this country trying to buy brushes from the manufacturers to help 
them in equipping their armies. That condition might account for some increase in 

1916. Since then they have taken care of the situation themselves and are supplying 
their market. * * * 

The war has had the effect of increasing our production. I think, in our particular 
case, it is due to the fact that there are no goods coming from foreign countries. We 
do not expect to hold the business we are doing now after the war is over, by any means. 
(From the statement of Mr. William Cordes, of the Florence Manufacturing Co.) 

The demand in this country has been very heavy because of our entry into the war. 
We have had very large requisitions from the Navy and the Army in all the different 
departments, so that we have had difficulty in getting enough material to supply the 
needs of our own Government. (From the statement of Mr. J. H. Heroy, of Rennous, 
Kleinle & Co.) 

The value of the general imports of brushes from European 
countries fell from about $1,500,000 in 1914 to about $400,000 in 

1917, a decrease of approximately 70 per cent. Domestic exports 
were valued at $863,630 in 1917, as compared with $449,909 in 1914, 
an increase of 91.9 per cent. Brush machinery that was idle prior 
to the war is now (May, 1918) in operation, and manufacturers 
are installing new equipment and increasing the number of em¬ 
ployees, as far as possible, to meet the demands of the domestic 
and foreign trade. The decrease in imports from Europe was more 
than offset by the increase in imports from Japan—an advance from 
$665,952 in 1914 to $1,800,300 in 1917, or an increase of 170 per cent. 

The most serious disturbance in the brush industry, created by 
the war, is the shortage of bristles. Conditions in Russia and the 
uncertainty of shipments have caused a scarcity of Russian bristles 
and an advance in price since 1914 of 100 to 300 per cent. Some 
grades can not be obtained at any price; French and German bleached 
bristles are no longer on the market. The Chinese supply has been 
heavily drawn upon because of the scarcity of the Russian stock. 
Manufacturers are also resorting to bristles from India, commonly 
called Calcuttas. These have also advanced in price, but not to the 
same extent as the Russian bristles. 

The war has made it very difficult to obtain bristles. There are two reasons for 
that. One is the fact that a great deal of our bristles came from Russia, and the 
system of transportation from Russia has been very much interfered with; Russia’s 
commercial life has been altogether interrupted, and at the present time we know 
of no bristle coming out of Russia. The only bristle to be had is the bristle that has 
already come out of the country. The other source of supply is China, and that 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


23 


supply has been drawn on very heavily because of the scarcity of the Russian stock. 
The difficulty in the case of the Chinese bristle is the difficulty in getting bottoms , 
in which to bring the material over. (From the statement of Mr. J. H. Heroy, of 
Rennous, Kleinle & Co., manufacturers.) 

Russian bristle is very scarce at this time, and of course the price is very much 
increased. Bristle is bought according to length, and the price is fixed on each 
length according to the demand. On some black goods to-day you can buy 3J-inch 
bristle, for instance, just 5 cents a pound cheaper than you can buy the 4-inch. That 
is, perhaps, on account of the scarcity of 4-inch. It depends on how stocks are in 
this country. Since the beginning of the war prices have advanced on the Chinese 
goods 75 per cent, I should say offhand. On the Russian goods they have more 
than doubled; they have trebled in some cases. (From the statement of Mr. G. Barth, 
of the Bigelow Brush Co., manufacturers.) 

The increase in price of Chinese bristles and Calcuttas is indicated 
by the following table, which gives the price per pound at which 
specified bristles were sold at auction in London, in October, 1915, 
1916, and 1917: 1 


Year. 

Chinese bristles. 

Calcuttas. 

Tientsin, 
4| inches. 

Chunking, 
41 inches. 

White, 4£ 
to 4j inches. 

Black, 4^ 
to 4J inches. 

1915. 

SI. 18 
1.60 
2.45 

SI. 62 
2.05 
2. 74 

$2.12 
3.41 
5.47 

$1.62 
1.89 
2. 74 

1916. 

1917. 



Celluloid has advanced in price on the average 85 per cent, horse¬ 
hair 50 per cent, brass wire 140 per cent, iron wire 50 per cent, and 
other materials in varying proportions since 1914. At times manu¬ 
facturers have had difficulty in obtaining materials on account of 
freight conditions and the inability of producers of brush materials 
to supply the demands of the trade. 

Wages have increased on the average 25 per cent since 1914. 
Although there has been no general increase in wages by collective 
bargaining on the part of employees, manufacturers have increased 
the wages of individuals and of groups of wage earners, in order to 
retain their present force as well as to induce labor to seek em¬ 
ployment in their factories. The scarcity of labor is attributed to 
the draft and to the high wages paid by manufacturers engaged in 
the production of war supplies. Under this handicap, manufac¬ 
turers have not been able to increase their output to the extent that 
the present demand for brushes would justify. 

The custom of putting out work to be done in the homes of em¬ 
ployees is decreasing, and is confined principally to the drawing of 
bristles into the backs or handles by hand. The state laws of New 
York require that tenement houses in which goods are made shall 
be licensed, and that goods made in homes shall be so marked. Laws 


1 Brushmaking, November, 1917, London, 
























( 


24 THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 

regulating the hours of labor, employment of minors, sanitation, and 
minimum wages have improved the working conditions of the 
industry. 

Raw Materials and Their Origin. 

Bristles .—Bristles obtained from the hog are .the principal raw 
material used in brush manufacture. A feature of the bristle which 
especially adapts it to the manufacture of paint brushes is the 
“flag” or split end. This tiny split or division into several parts of 
the outer end makes it a perfect paint and varnish smoother and 
distributor. The flag end has no value to makers of toilet brushes. 
Another peculiar feature of bristles is the “bend”’ or natural curve, 
which must be taken into consideration in making paint, varnish, 
and other brushes of like character. The best grades of bristles, 
determined by length, color, stiffness, shape, texture, and resiliency, 
are obtained from hogs living in cold climates; hence Russian and 
Siberian bristles are known for their superior quality. Russia and 
China supply most of the bristles used in the brush industry. Russia 
is first in production, followed in the order named by China, Ger¬ 
many, and India. France produces a limited quantity of fine white 
bristles. The French have the best process of bleaching bristles; 
“French bleached” stands for the highest grade of whiteness. Other 
countries of central Europe produce and export considerable quan¬ 
tities of bristles. Those produced in the United States are a by¬ 
product of the slaughterhouses. They are short and inferior in 
quality on account of the breeding of the hog and its immaturity 
when slaughtered. American bristles are used principally in the 
manufacture of the cheaper grades of brushes, such as shoe and dust 
brushes. 

The introduction of Chinese bristles into the American market 
was an important event in the brush industry. The objections of 
the trade to the substitution of Chinese for Russian bristles were 
largely overcome by the discovery of the proper treatment of the 
Chinese bristle. The chief obstacle to the use of the last named was 
the fact that its peculiar characteristics necessitated a method of 
treatment different from that used in preparing the Russian bristle. 
Chinese bristles are generally black and range in length form 2\ to 7 
inches. They are as resilient as the Russian, but are not so tough or 
so durable. Their hard-polished surfaces are undesirable in brushes. 

Bristle markets .—The chief center of Russian bristles before the 
war was Leipzig, Germany. The German bristle houses sent their 
agents throughout Russia and Siberia, chiefly to Nizhni Novgorod, 
where fairs were held and to which place came the caravans carrying, 
among other articles to be sold, the bristles procured from the Rus¬ 
sian farmers. The raw bristles were dispatched in bulk to Leipzig, 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


25 


where they were sorted, roughly cleaned, bundled, and prepared for 
further distribution. The chief centers of distribution of Chinese 
bristles are Tientsin, Shanghai, Hongkong, and Hankow. Before 
the revolution in Russia, bristle dealers were endeavoring to divert 
the course of trade from Leipzig to some center in Russia, so that 
after the war Russian firms might secure the profits which would 
otherwise go to German middlemen. London at present (1918) 
controls the bristle trade. The Japanese are endeavoring to secure 
control of the Russian bristle market, and are said to have copied 
the effective German system of the past. The main source of supply 
of Siberian bristles is in the district bordered by the Urals on the 
west and the river Lena on the east. The question now arises as to 
whether, should the Japanese extend their sphere of influence west¬ 
ward, the market in the future would not be centered in Kobe. 
The control of the Chinese bristle trade is also being sought by the 
Japanese, but has thus far been prevented by the strength of British 
merchants in China. 

Japan is getting a pretty strong hold on the bristle market and is endeavoring to 
control it. We have bought bristles within the last year from Japan, through a Japa¬ 
nese representative, which we never thought of doing heretofore. It is the first time 
in the history of our business, extending over a period of 50 years, that we have bought 
bristles direct through Japanese representatives. (From the statement of Mr. William 
Cordes, of the Florence Manufacturing Co.) 

The following tables show the importation of bristles into the 
United States, by countries, for the years 1910 to 1917, inclusive: 


Imports of bristles, sorted, bunched, or prepared, into the United States, 1910-1917 . 


Imported from— 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Pounds. 

I 

Value. 

Pounds. 

V alue. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

. Value. 

Germany. 

United Kingdom.... 

China. 

France. 

Russia in Europe... 
All other. 

Total. 

925,616 
1,046,565 
1,682,596 
258,613 
37,948 
41,182 

$1,104,018 
j 917,040 
817,870 
191,919 
51,063 
29,362 

766,568 
1,001,711 
1,460,306 
243,127 
37,273 
33,928 

$955,501 
970,917 
769,811 
193,160 
51,867 
29,225 

724,602 
943,393 
1,464,043 
191,726 
15,894 
98,143 

$973,858 
968,638 
855,966 
147,719 
26,701 
59,349 

797,315 
1,050,551 
1,407,131 
193,839 
32,321 
78,276 

$1,151,506 
1,169,515 
904,065 
170,104 
43,542 
53,248 

3,992,520 

3,111,872 

3,542,913 

2,970,481 

3,435,801 

3,032,231 

3,559,433 

3,491,980 

Imported from— 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Germany.* 

United Kingdom.... 

China. 

France. 

Russia in Europe_ 

All other. 

Total. 

598,847 
1,013,765 
1,410,373 
175,986 

7,450 
202,375 

$809,879 
1,166,799 
934,211 
120,911 
9,341 
129,833 

360,340 
989,050 
2,358,772 
137,184 
39,770 
131,478 

$590,683 
1,145,018 
1,612,574 
111,055 
69,568 
80,850 

41,713 
1,016,587 
2,333,437 
120,114 
180,413 
157,823 

$85,345 
1,322,984 
1,598,445 
106,739 
354,199 
144,340 

2,723 
1,233,195 
2,373,758 
91,706 
124,389 
200,768 

$7,416 
2,123,612 
1,718,548 
88,437 
255,255 
188,143 

3,408,796 

3,170,974 

4,016,594 

3,609,748 

3,850,087 

3,612,052 

4,026,539 

4,381,411 


78328—18-4 


I 




































































26 THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


Imports of bristles, not sorted, bunched or prepared, into the United States, 1910-1917. 


Imported from— 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Germany. 

5,813 

4,318 

3,946 

$4,459 
3,575 
4,201 

5,610 
5,759 
73 

$4,493 
5,144 
92 

8,895 

4,958 

1,104 

7,333 

$5,117 
3,897 
1,659 
3,790 

5.209 

8.210 
600 

2,666 

$3,851 
6,308 
661 
1,259 

Russia in Europe... 
United Kingdom.... 
China. 

Denmark . 





Sweden .. 









Canada. 



120 

74 



2,325 

141 

467 

37 

All other. 

23,850 

752 

3,884 

333 

Total. 



37,927 

12,987 

11,562 

9,803 

26,174 

14,796 

19,151 

12,583 


Imported from— 

1914 

1915 

1816 

1917 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value- 

Germany. 

14,287 

12,578 

$15,317 
9,881 







Russia in Europe... 
United Kingdom.... 





25,543 
31,252 
11,071 

$23,146 
14,945 
9,259 

1,115 

$1,139 

2,006 
4,000 
44,440 
7,895 
28,002 
31 

$462 
826 
2,409 
9,096 
2,186 
11 

China. 7. . 

200 

100 

Denmark. 

10,409 

1,045 

Sweden. 





Canada. 

184 

1,110 

18 

179 

33,942 

1,152 

60,203 
1,391 

4,816 
370 

All other. 

Total. 



28,359 

25,495 

45,466 

3,336 

86,374 

14,990 

129,460 

52,536 

r 



Substitutes for bristles .—No satisfactory substitute for bristles has 
yet been found. In the cheaper paintbrushes, horsehair and a fiber 
known as tampico are mixed with bristles, but they merely serve to 
increase the size of the brush at the expense of its quality. Their 
presence in some brushes is not easily detected except by those 
familiar with the industry. In hairbrushes and in some other toilet 
. brushes, split quills are also used to cheapen the quality. 

Hairs .—Some brushes are made entirely of hair. Horsehair is 
flabby, lacks the toughness, strength, spring, and wearing qualit}' of 
bristles, and, what is very important to paintbrush manufacturers, 
the absorbing or paint-holding power of bristles. Horsehair is im¬ 
ported from England, Argentina, Italy, Russia, Brazil, Germany, and 
Uruguay. The domestic supply is from Texas. Red sable hair, a 
product of Siberia, is the most valuable hair put into brushes. It 
possesses fineness, toughness, elasticity, soft ends, and great dura¬ 
bility. Brushes made of red sable hair are used by artists in minia¬ 
ture painting and in other fine work. Black sable hair serves for 
brushes used by sign writers and decorators, for lettering, striping, 
and scrollwork. Squirrel hair, designated camel hair; is fine and 
has soft ends; it is used largely in the manufacture of brushes for 
water-color painting. The real earners hair is a Manchurian product. 
Skunk hair, dignified by the name of fitch hair, is used in large 
quantities for varnish brushes. It possesses elasticity and toughness, 
but lacks softness in the ends. Ox hair and bear hair are also 
largely used in making varnish brushes. Badger hair, which is 














































































THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 27 

long, tough, and coarse, is frequently used for shaving brushes. Hair 
of other animals is also used in brush manufacture. 

Vegetable fibers .—Vegetable fibers, obtained from palms growing in 
tropical countries, are largely superseding bristles in the manufacture 
of the coarser kinds of brushes. Tampico, the principal fiber used 
in brush making, is imported from Mexico and to some extent 
from South America. It is very coarse and is much cheaper than 
bristles or horsehair, but it does not possess the wearing qualities of 
either hair or bristles. It is entirely too coarse for paintbrushes, 
but is adapted to cheap floor sweeps, counter dusters, and other 
brushes for cleaning purposes. 

Tampico is not easily distinguished from bristle and some bristle dressers have not 
hesitated to insert a first-class quality of the fiber in their packages of bristle. (From 
the statement of Mr. W. 0. Howard, manufacturer.) 

Bone. —Bone, used for backs or handles of toothbrushes, is one of 
the by-products of the large meat-packing houses in North and South 
America. The better grade toothbrushes are made from selected 
thigh bones of cattle. Buttock and shin bones are used for the 
cheaper grades. Bone handles, shaped, polished, drilled, and ready 
to have the bristles inserted are being offered in the Amerian market 
by Japanese manufacturers at a price less than cost to Amercian 
producers, notwithstanding the fact that the bone is shipped from 
Chicago to Japan and thence back to the United States, the Japanese 
paying the same price, f. o. b. Chicago. It is represented that a 
large proportion of the toothbrushes used in the United States have 
solid-back, bone handles. These brushes are largely imported from 
France and Japan. The bone brushes produced in the United States 
are wire drawn, with channels on the back filled with wax. Machinery 
has not. been employed effectively in the United States in the manu¬ 
facture of toothbrushes with bone handles. 

Under normal conditions we have been able to buy the handle of the brush we make— 
when we made it of bone—in Japan at 27 per cent less than we could make it in our 
own factory, and the raw material, the bone from which the handle of the brush was 
produced, was shipped from this country to Japan. It is entirely a question of labor, 
because they can not buy bone any cheaper than we can buy it. * * * We are 
making toothbrushes by machinery, and we can do it as long as we can use pyroxylin. 
We can not make them by machinery with bone. The Germans claim that they have 
been successful in making them with bone, and we have a sample of a bone brush 
made on a machine. (From the statement of Mr. W. Cordes, of the Florence Manu¬ 
facturing Co.) 

Pyroxylin plastics .—These plastics are variously known by the 
trade names of celluloid, pyralin, fiberloid, and viscoloid. They 
consist of pyroxylin—a variety of nitrocellulose—and camphor, with 
or without a pigment, which is usually zinc oxide. The addition of 
the pigment gives the opaque product; any desired color may be 
produced by the addition of suitable dyes. The resemblance of 


28 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


some of these plastics to ivory, in texture and color, has made them 
very popular materials for the backs of toilet brushes, especially 
those in sets. Toothbrush handles of plastics are rapidly replacing 
those made of bone. They are not so porous as bone and for that 
reason are more sanitary; they will not split and lacerate the gums; 
they can be used more successfully than bone in making brushes by 
machinery, as bone splits in the process of drilling; also the metal 
staple or anchor used to fasten the tuft in the handle or back can be 
more firmly embedded when plastics are used. Possible rival com¬ 
modities of the pyroxylin plastics are those of the synthetic phenolic 
resin type, variously known by the trade names of bakelite, 
condensite, and redmanol. 

Wood .—Wood used in the backs or handles is generally of the 
hardwood variety imported from tropical countries. Birch, beech 
maple, and cherry from New York and the New England States, and 
redwood from California are also used. Some manufacturers buy 
the wooden handles or backs ready-made; others cut them from the 
log or lumber in their own factories. 

Adhesives .—In the manufacture of simple brushes and in some 
compound brushes, adhesives are used to secure the bristles. Brushes 
are set in a composition of shellac, pitch and other gums, in 
cement, and in glue, the adhesive depending upon the ordinary use 
for which the brush is intended. A departure from these setting 
mediums was the use of vulcanized rubber. Hard rubber is insoluble 
in almost anything in which bristles can be used, whereas other 
adhesives are more or less susceptible to the action of various liquids. 

Miscellaneous materials .—The materials used for binding the 
bristles to the back or handle are twine, wire, leather and ferrules of 
iron, steel, tin, and brass. Other materials which become part of the 
finished brush are tacks, screws, nails, paint, and varnish. 

Methods and Processes of Manufacture. 

In the United States brush making started as a household or 
neighborhood industry. Power machines and other labor-saving 
devices are now replacing hand labor. This evolution has been 
slower in the brush-making industry than in most others, notably 
the textile. There are, however, operations which do not readily 
lend themselves to the use of automatic machinery. The use of 
automatic machinery is confined to bristle combing and mixing, to 
nailing in the manufacture of simple brushes, and to boring and 
tuft setting by means of staples or anchors in the manufacture of 
compound brushes. 

In the production and manufacture of paintbrushes skilled labor is absolutely- 
required. We have no machines to put the brushes together. The only machines 
used in our manufacture are what we call the bristle mixing machines and the nailing 
machine. Aside from those things everything else is done by hand. Some people 
may be under the impression that it does not require any skill to make a paintbrush. 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


29 


W e would not attempt to put a man on certain brushes unless he had had at least 
three or four years’ experience at the bench, for the reason that if the bristle was not 
turned in, if what we call the flag ends were not turned in, in,the proper shape, so 
that when it is put into the material it will work and wear like a chisel, instead of 
spraddling out like a painter’s duster, the brush would not be any good. (From the 
statement of Mr. G. Barth, of the Bigelow Brush Co., manufacturers.) 

The article is entirely too delicate for machine production. One of those little 
tufts of hair is so delicate that the average person would not know that they had it in 
their fingers. He could not control it and could not work it into shape. To learn 
how to make brushes properly a person should start in his youth. The hair is produced 
from the tails of various animals, squirrels, marten, mink, and so forth. It is only 
after a person has got used to feeling the hair with the fingers, knowing how much he 
has and how much it varies in length and so forth, that he can make a good brush. 
(From the statement of Mr. A. Baker, manufacturer.) 

Brushes are simple when they have a single tuft of bristles or hair, 
as paint, varnish, and shaving brushes, and compound when they 
have a multiplicity of bristle or fiber tufts, as hair, tooth, nail, hat, 
cloth, shoe, and scrub brushes. 

Brushes may also he divided according to their use into three 
classes: (1) Brushes for toilet purposes, as hair, tooth, nail, bath, and 
shaving; (J2) brushes for painters and artists; (3) brushes for cleaning 
and polishing, as shoe, scrub, stove, and the great variety of special 
brushes which come under this class. 

SIMPLE BRUSHES-PAINT AND VARNISH. 

Preparation of bristles .—Although bristles are generally bought 
graded as to length and roughly cleaned, they are put through a 
number of processes before they can be used in brushes. They are 
further graded as to length by a process caked dragging, are washed, 
dried in a kiln, wrapped around wooden plugs to straighten the bend, 
and in case of light stock are bleached. These operations are per¬ 
formed by hand. The bristles are then combed and mixed for stock, 
generally by machinery; the mixture depends upon the grade and 
kind of brush to be made. The tangles are removed by combing, 
and all the flag ends are placed one way. The cost of production is 
reduced by mixing bristles of different quality and varied lengths. 
The mixing of different lengths is a real advantage, because it permits 
new flag ends to be brought into use as the longer bristles wear out, 
and because it prevents the brush from wearing stubby. 

Brush making .—This operation may be said to be first in the manu¬ 
facture of paint and varnish brushes. The stock that goes into each . 
brush is weighed by the brush maker on a hand scale. The required 
amount of stock is then taken up to be made into a brush. It is 
here that the skill of the brush maker comes into play. Notwith¬ 
standing previous treatment of bristles to remove the bend, they still 
retain this feature. The brush maker, by a few movements of the 
hands, so arranges the bristles that the natural bend is inward, toward 


! 


30 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


the center of the brush. If the bend is not properly arranged, the 
bristles will spread and the brush will prove unsatisfactory to the 
user. 

Metal-bound flat brushes. —The brush maker, after arranging the 
bristles, inserts them in a metal band, which protrudes some distance 
above the butt ends of the bristles. If the brush is not made solid, 
wooden plugs or strips are inserted as a filler and to secure the bristles 
more firmly in the metal band. 

Metal-bound round and oval brushes. —The brush maker, in addition 
to arranging the bristles and inserting them in a ferrule, pushes the 
handle backward through the center of the tuft, small end first, and 
then drives it into place by the hard blows of a hammer. 

Chisel-pointed brushes. —The flag end of the tuft is put into a cup, 
wedge-shaped at the bottom, as large as the brush to be made. 
By tapping and gentle pressure the tuft settles down into the cup, 
from which it is removed in the desired shape, and is placed in the 
binder. 

Leather-bound brushes. —The bristles are distributed around the 
handle or block. The brush maker, by his sense of touch, always 
keeps the bend of the bristle inward and toward the center. In place 
of a metal ferrule as a binder, a strap of leather is drawn tightly 
around and nailed to the handle by hand. 

Brushes set in vulcanized rubber. —The operations are somewhat 
different. The tufts are partly secured by the application of unvul¬ 
canized rubber before being placed in the bands or ferrules. Owing 
to the hardness of rubber after vulcanization, it is necessary to drill 
holes in that portion of the brush in the band or ferrule before the 
brush can be nailed. 

Applying adhesives. —The adhesive, if cement, is poured into the 
open end of the metal band over the butt end of the bristles, or it is 
driven in by a machine operated by compressed air; if vulcanized 
rubber, the unvulcanized gum is applied to the butt end of the tuft, 
which is then placed in a kiln to evaporate the benzine or other 
solvent. After the tuft has been placed in a band or ferrule the 
brush is ready for vulcanization, the time for which varies according 
to the character of the work. 

Other operations. —Handles are inserted in the ferrules or bands, are 
nailed into place either by hand or by a power-driven machine, and 
the loose bristles are eliminated and the brushes trimmed. The 
brushes are then moistened, wrapped in paper, and placed in a kiln, 
in order to give the correct position to the bristle.' Names or brands 
are stamped on the handles, which are then varnished or painted by 
hand, or the brushes are placed in racks and the handles then dipped 
in varnish or shellac. When dry the brushes are inspected, the 
bristle end is papered to maintain the shape, and the brushes are 
placed in boxes for shipment. 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


31 


COMPOUND BRUSHES. 

Hair, tooth, cloth, hat, shoe, and other brushes containing a 
multiplicity of tufts are subject to similar methods of manufacture. 

Preparation of bristles .—Bristles are received in bunches, ranging 
in diameter from 2 to 12 inches. Before they can be used in the 
manufacture of brushes, they must be inspected, washed, sterilized, 
bleached, combed, dragged, cut into proper lengths, mixed, bunched, 
and weighed. 

Preparation of backs or handles .—When wood is used, it is cut into 
slabs of approximately the length, width, and depth of the brush 
backs. The slabs are then roughly shaped and planed before being 
sent to the shaper, who by the use of rapidly revolving knives gives 
them their final form. The sand wheeler removes the rough edges 
and smooths the backs, which are then sent to the finishing room, 
where they are subjected to various processes to give them the 
desired finish. Holes are drilled in the backs or handles, except in 
the so-called rubber-cushion and composition-face brushes, the backs 
of which are routed—that is, hollowed out. If bone is used for the 
backs and handles, the operations vary according to the grade and 
quality of the brush to be made. The usual operations are the saw¬ 
ing of the thigh bones into slabs, which are in turn milled to the 
thickness desired, shaped, drilled, bleached, polished, weighed or 
counted, and inspected. If pyroxylin plastics are used, the blanks 
are put through various processes of shaping, drilling, polishing, and 
inspecting, the number of operations varying in different establish¬ 
ments as well as in the grade of the brush to be made. 

Hand-drawn , veneered, or two-piece brushes .—The oldest known 
method is that employed in making a veneered or two-piece hand- 
drawn brush. It is distinctly handwork. The wooden block already 
shaped into a brush back, flat on top and containing the required 
number of holes, is sent to the drawer, who passes a loop of fine wire 
or thread through one of the holes from the back of the block and 
inserts the proper amount of bristles in the loop. By drawing the 
wire or thread tight, the tuft is bent double and pulled into the hole. 
The process is repeated until all the holes in the block are filled. 
Backs are then fastened to the blocks containing the rows of tufts, 
either with glue or screws and sometimes both. This method of 
making a brush is employed more extensively in Japan and in the 
countries of Europe where labor is cheap, than in the United States. 
Wherever brushes are made by the hand method, the drawing is done 
to a very great extent in the homes of the employees, by women and 
children. 

Machine-drawn brushes .—This process is more manual than mechan¬ 
ical. The machine measures correctly the quantity of bristles and 
marks their center, thereby facilitating the manipulation of the wire. 


32 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


The operator proceeds in much the same way as in hand drawing, the 
principal difference being that the bristles are measured and centered 
by machine instead of by hand. The use of the machine insures 
smaller wastage. 

Handmade, trepanned, solid-back brushes. —The solid-back brush, as 
its name indicates, consists of one piece only. Vertical holes are 
bored halfway through the brush block, where they intercept longi¬ 
tudinal channels extending from end to end. A block so prepared is 
said to be trepanned. Threads are inserted into the channels and 
drawn up through the vertical holes to the surface by means of a fine 
hook. The tuft is then placed in the loop and when the thread is 
drawn taut, the tuft is forced into the hole. The process is repeated 
until every hole is filled. The ends of the longitudinal channels are 
plugged to secure the threads. The drawing, like that of the two- 
piece brush, is done almost exclusively in the homes of employees. 
This process is much in vogue in France and in Japan and to a less 
extent in England, Germany, and Austria in the manufacture of hair, 
tooth, nail, and cloth brushes. Manufacturers in the United States 
do not follow this method extensively, as labor conditions are against 
it. Brushes are sometimes made to have the appearance of being 
trepanned by the insertion of plugs in holes at the end of the brush. 

Staple or anchor fastened, solid-back brushes. —Brushes made by this 
process are more properly designated solid-back brushes than the 
trepanned brushes, because there are no longitudinal channels but 
only the holes in which the tufts are secured. An automatic machine 
has been perfected which measures the bristles, bores the holes, inserts 
the tuft in the hole and secures it there by means of a wire staple or 
small steel anchor. This method is used extensively in the United 
States in the manufacture of hair, tooth, and other toilet brushes. 
The use of automatic machinery, however, is not confined to the 
industry in the United States; in fact the automatic tooth-brush 
machine was invented in Austria, and the automatic machine for 
making hair brushes is the product of French or Belgian ingenuity. 
Germany and Austria have manufactured machine-made brushes for 
many years. Some of the choicest tooth brushes with celluloid han¬ 
dles which come from Austria are machine made. Brush makers in 
Japan are keenly alive to the exigencies of the situation and are 
installing or making preparations to install automatic machinery, 
either imported or copied. It is claimed that the Japanese brush 
makers, having the advantage of cheap labor, will be able to place 
brushes on the market at a price below the range of possibility to 
American manufacturers. However, those who are familiar with 
conditions in Japan state that the Japanese worker does not readily 
adapt himself to factory regulations, and for this reason his output 
per machine is not equal to that of workers in other countries. 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


33 


The Japanese workman is not frivolous, but he is not yet trained to our ideals of 
factory workmen; that is to say, to working steady hours, to working constantly, and 
being willing to perform the same operation time after time throughout the day. 
The Japanese workman prefers a little variety in his work, and that is why he excels 
in carving, in painting, and in things of that kind, where he can put a little originality 
into the production. His natural traits are so strongly opposed to methodical work 
that it is impossible to put him on machines and get any kind of results. We have 
tried machine drawing and it does not pay. The amount of bad workmanship is more 
than enough to make up for the increase in speed. For that reason we continue the 
hand drawing and will probably do so until the nation develops characteristics which 
will make them good, efficient, work people. This condition has always jeopardized 
their industrial future and always will. (From the statement of Mr. W. B. Gibson, 
importer.) 

The use of machinery has shut out labor to some extent. When those brushes 
(toothbrushes) were drawn by hand a good many of them were made in the homes of 
people and drawn by them, and that has been eliminated entirely. 

About 10 years ago we bought the United States rights to the Gruneberg (Austria) 
machine, which we still hold. The machine we are now using is not the Gruneberg 
machine. It is our own. There has been an absolute change in the machine, embody¬ 
ing not only the Gruneberg patents, but also the McClintock-Young patents. I do not 
know if these automatic machines are used in Japan. Mr. Gruneberg is operating his 
machine in his own factory in Austria, and his brushes are shipped to this country to 
some extent. One brush, known as the Kleanwell, is a Gruneberg product. That is 
the celluloid end of it, and the others are bought in France, or wherever the importer 
can get them. I do not think that there is a greater use of automatic machinery here 
than abroad, except in our particular line. I think there are very few machines used 
in the making of other brushes. (From the statement of Mr. William Cordes, of the 
Florence Manufacturing Co.) 

Composition-face brushes .—The composition-face brush is the result 
of modern tendencies to produce on a large scale and at low costs. 
It is an original American process. The brush block is routed; that 
is, the under side is hollowed out and filled with a plastic composition. 
Bristles are shaken or sifted by means of an agitator through the 
holes of a die or pattern. The tufts are forced into the composition 
which, when hard, firmly holds them in their proper places. 

Rubber cushion brushes .—In rubber cushion brushes the blocks are 
routed and undercut. The bristles are sifted by an agitator through 
the holes of a piece of rubber somewhat larger than the recess of the 
block. The ends of the bristles protruding through the rubber are 
ironed down, and liquid rubber is placed over the ironed ends and 
vulcanized. The rubber containing the tufts is inserted in the back 
of the brush. A hole is bored in the end of the brush to allow the 
passage of air under the rubber to give the cushion effect. Hair¬ 
brushes are made by this process both in the United States and in 
England. 

Cement-set brushes .—By this method the tufts are secured in the 
backs of brushes by placing the proper amount of cement in the holes 
and afterwards inserting the tufts by hand. The method is simple, 
78328—18-5 



34 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


yet its successful application may be said to be confined, in the 
United States, to one establishment. On account of the greater 
labor cost involved, brushes made by this process are generally the 
high-priced articles. 

Pitch-set brushes .—In this method, sometimes called, pan work 
because the workers sit around a pan of melted pitch, one end of 
each tuft is dipped in melted pitch and bound with thread. The 
tufts are then redipped and inserted with a twisting motion into the 
holes of the handle or back. Counter dusters, floor sweeps, and 
blacking brushes are among those made by this method. 

The foregoing are methods used in the manufacture of multiple tuft 
brushes. No attempt has been made to describe each single operation 
in the manufacture of a brush; only general methods have been 
dealt with. The number of operations is determined not only by the 
grade of the brush but by the policy of the company in regard to the 
division of labor. As an illustration of the number of operations in 
making a tooth brush, one manufacturer reports that there are about 
40 operations in making a toothbrush with a bone handle and about 
30 for one with a celluloid handle. These operations include the 
forming and finishing of the handles, inserting the tufts, seriating 
and shaping of tufts, stamping or printing of names and trade-marks 
on the handles, inspecting the work at various stages, counting or 
weighing brushes, grading, sterilizing, and boxing and assembling 
for shipment; in fact, all operations except the preparation of the 
bristles. 



REVIEW OF THE INDUSTRY AND TRADE IN 

PRINCIPAL FOREIGN BRUSH-PRODUCING 

COUNTRIES. 


35 


\ 









































■ - ' . ' 






■ 





. 




\ 





«■ » * . 

..«. 










■ 

. 






. 






• . 
















—--— 









































































■ 











REVIEW OF THE INDUSTRY AND TRADE IN PRINCIPAL FOR¬ 
EIGN BRUSH-PRODUCING COUNTRIES. 

Brush making in the various countries of Europe is relatively a 
small industry, and only meager descriptions of industrial conditions 
are to be found. Apparently the American consuls have not been 
called upon to make special reports on this industry, as an examina¬ 
tion of their reports discloses very little information in regard to 
the manufacture of brushes. Statistics of production are not pub¬ 
lished by European nations as a rule; England had its first census of 
production in 1907. 

FRANCE. 

The manufacture of brushes was carried on mainly in that part 
of France, now (winter of 1917-18) occupied by the Germans. The 
French product consists largely of hair and tooth brushes, and is 
noted for its graceful and artistic design as well as for its fine quality. 
The bristles used in the manufacture of brushes are imported from 
Russia and Roumania. Before the war France also secured bristles 
from Leipzig. France, however, produces a very fine quality of 
white bristles. The French possess a superior method of bleaching, 
and the bristles so treated are much in demand for the manufacture 
of the better grades of brushes. 

In the manufacture of toilet brushes, France follows principally 
the handdrawn trepanned method. Much of the drawing is done 
in homes by women, when not occupied with their household duties, 
and by children after school hours. Whole villages are engaged in 
the production of brushes. The contractor delivers the materials 
to the workers at their homes and afterwards calls for the finished 
product. In a review of the trade and industrial conditions for 
the year 1915, Consul General A. M. Thackara, Paris, says: 

The French manufacturer has realized that too much of the work in the manufacture 
of brushes has been done by hand. Already steps are being taken to change the meth¬ 
ods of production by the introduction of machinery after the war. 

Imports and exports .—In normal times France does not import 
many brushes. In the period covered by the years 1909 to 1914, 
inclusive, the imports varied from $57,572 to $108,749, without 
showing any steady trend either to increase or decrease. The 
maximum for the period was reached in 1913, but the following 
years the imports fell to $68,845. The brushes imported by France 
were principally from Belgium and Germany. From 1909 to 1912, 

37 


38 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


inclusive, the former country supplied between 40 and 47 per cent 
of the imports, and in the years 1913 and 1914 Germany took first 
rank in supplying slightly more than 40 per cent of the total imports. 
France also imports brushes from the United States. The highest 
amount credited to the United States was in 1911, when the imports 
amounted to $6,747, or 8.9 per cent, of the total imports of brushes. 

The production of brushes in France is in excess of the consumption; 
she is, therefore, to be classed as an exporting country. The total 
value of the exports for the period 1909 to 1914 varied from $1,149,905 
in 1909 to $2,482,193 in 1913. The exports amounted to $1,832,583 
in 1914, up to which time there was a gradual increase. England 
has taken from 26 to 35 per cent of the French exports, Belgium 
from 8 to 18 per cent, United States from 10 to 20 per cent, Argentina 
from 6 to 10 per cent, Germany from 3 to 5 per cent, and the French 
colonies from 6 to 11 per cent. The exports to the United States, 
which in 1909 amounted to $113,506, jumped to $219,450 in 1910 
and gradually increased up to 1913, when another large increase 
was shown, the exports amounting to $435,456 although the quantity 
exported in 1913 was less than in 1912. This increase in value was 
due to a change by the French Government in the official value 
placed on brushes exported. In 1914 the exports dropped to $277,- 
775. It is interesting to note that a comparison of the French 
official statistics of exports of brushes with the United States official 
statistics of imports shows a wide variation between the two state¬ 
ments of the value of brushes exported by France to the United 
States. The difference is explained by the methods followed by 
these governments in valuing the same goods. The French place 
an official value upon exports, which for brushes was 472 francs per 
quintal or 100 kilos, for the years 1909 to 1912, inclusive, and 950 
francs per quintal for the years 1913 and 1914, whereas the imports 
into the United States are valued at their actual market value or 
wholesale price, at the time of exportation to the United States, in 
the principal markets of the country whence exported. French 
statistics cover the calendar year, whereas those of the United States 
are for its fiscal year, another fact to be taken into consideration in 
comparing the exports of France with the imports of the United 
States. 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY 


39 


3he following tables show French imports from, and exports to, 
principal countries, for the years 1909 to 1914, inclusive: 


Imports of brushes into France , 1909-1914. 


Imported from— 

1909 

1910 

1911 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

Germany... 

Belgium". 

United States. 

$16,428 

24,569 

6,454 

10,121 

28. 54 
42. 68 
11.21 
17. 57 

$22,002 
29,776 

32.36 
43.80 

$23,836 
31,463 
6,747 
13,787 

31.44 
41.49 
8.89 
18.18 

All other. 

Total.' 

16,208 

23.84 

57,572 

100 

67,986 

100 

75,833 

100 

Imported from— 

1912 

1913 

1914 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

Germany. 

Belgium. 

United States. 

All other. 

Total. 

$23,909 
36,597 
5,794 
12,761 

30. 24 
46.29 
7.33 
16.14 

$44,512 
38,725 
6,496 
20,657 

40.32 
35.08 
5.S9 
18. 71 

$28,012 
22,919 
5,796 
12,118 

40.69 
33.29 
8.42 
17.60 

79,061 

100 

110,390 

100 

68,845 

100 


Exports of brushes from France, 1909-1914. 


Exported to— 

1909 

1910 

1911 

Value. 

Per ^ent 
of total 
value. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

United Kingdom. 

Belgium. 

United States. 

Germany. 

French colonies. 

Argentina. 

All other. 

Total. 

$359,829 
206,241 
113,506 
56,115 
92,918 
114,690 
206,606 

31.29 
17. 94 
9. 87 
4.88 
8.08 
9. 97 
17. 97 

$368.939 
205,057 
219,450 
48,281 
96,015 
93,373 
256,526 

28.65 
15.93 
17.04 
3. 75 
7. 46 
7.25 
19.92 

$349,171 
203,053 
224,096 
49,830 
117,696 
91,369 
228,378 

27.63 
16.07 
17. 74 
3.94 
9.32 
7.23 
18.07 

1,149,905 

100 

1,287,641 

100 

1,263,593 

100 


Exported to— 

1912 

1913 

1914 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

United Kingdom. 

Belgium. 

United States. 

Germany. 

French colonies. 

Argentina. 

All other. 

Total. 

$357,461 
206,332 
274,746 
38,442 
120,884 
83,171 
308,633 

25. 72 
14.85 
19. 77 
2. 77 
8. 70 
5. 99 
22. 20 

$673,995 
311,328 
435,456 
123,945 
242,939 
191,214 
503,236 

27.15 

12.54 

17.54 
4.99 
9. 79 
7. 71 

20.28 

$632,558 
155,114 
277,775 
65.456 
198; 201 
141,363 
362,116 

34.52 
8.46 
15.16 
3.57 
10.82 
7. 71 
19.76 

1,389,669 

100 

2,482,193 

100 

1,832,583 

100 



























































































































I 


40 THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 

GERMANY, 

Development of the industry .—In the early days of the industry the 
brushes were coarse and not much skill was required in their manu¬ 
facture. Home workers, whose products exceeded their domestic 
requirements, went over the country selling their wares. In the 
larger cities, however, brush makers maintained fixed places of busi¬ 
ness, but they were often compelled to visit adjacent markets to 
dispose of their product. 

Brush making as a home industry developed in two centers. One 
at Schonheide and the other at Todtnau, in the Black Forest region 
of Baden. According to some authorities, this industry did not start 
until the beginning of the nineteenth century, but there is evidence 
from certain decrees that it was in existence as early as 1623. 

Capitalism brought about many changes in the industry. The 
first large factory was erected in 1862 and others soon followed. 
The large manufacturers began to gain control over the home work¬ 
ers, who were virtually forced into selling their products to their 
large competitors. 

From Todtnau the industry spread into numerous other places; 
in 1895 there were 440 establishments with 2,143 workers in the 
Grand Duchy of Baden. In 1907 the number of establishments 
had decreased to 276, but the number of workers had slightly in¬ 
creased. The decrease in the number of establishments was due to 
the absorption of the small independent producers by the large 
establishments. Home work was limited more and more to women 
and children. 

Brushmaking was also carried on at an early date in the Hartz 
Mountains of Saxony. It was a home industry closely connected 
with peddling. It may be assumed that the industry was in exist¬ 
ence as early as 1580, from which date brush makers were regular 
visitors to the Leipzig fairs. In 1854 there were a few establish¬ 
ments that employed outside help. 

Concerning the later development of the industry in Germany, some 
information can be gained from the statistics of occupation and 
industry. The number of establishments increased from 6,098 in 
1882 to 6,191 in 1885, and the number of employees from 15,378 
to 22,970. The centralization of the industry is shown by a com¬ 
parison of the number of establishments in 1895 with the number 
in 1882. Small factories decreased from 5,804 to 5,666, while me¬ 
dium size factories increased from 270 to 462 and lar^e factories 
from 24 to 63. A similar comparison of the statistics for the years 
1895 and 1907 shows an increase in the number of large factories 
and a decrease in the small factories. The following table shows 
the number of establishments and employees in the various political 
divisions of the German Emoire for the year 1907. 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


41 


Political division. 

Number 
of estab¬ 
lish¬ 
ments. 

Listed 
as em¬ 
ployees. 

Number 

actually 

em¬ 

ployed. 

Political division. 

Number 
of estab¬ 
lish¬ 
ments. 

Listed 
as em¬ 
ployees. 

Number 

actually 

em¬ 

ployed. 

Silesia. 

Northern Bavaria.. 
Southern Bavaria.. 
Saxony (Kingdom) 

Wurtemberg. 

Baden. 

420 
763 
520 
771 

421 
276 

2,136 

4,664 

1,671 

3,807 

1,642 

2,331 

1,535 

3,383 

937 

2,734 

992 

1,795 

Rheinland. 

Saxony (Province). 
All other. 

Total. 

302 

231 

1,851 

1,446 

949 

8,337 

911 

626 

5,757 

5,555 

26,983 

18,750 


A comparison of the number of employees, according to age and 
sex, for the years 1895 and 1907 is shown in the following table: 


Employees. 


# 

Year. 

Over 16 years of age. 

Under 18 years of age. 

Total. 

Appren¬ 

tices. 



Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

1895. 


8,916 

3,443 

5,406 

1,202 

1,417 

616 

14,177 

18,750 

1,227 

1,197 

1907. 


.; 11,181 

746 


Use of machinery .—The census of 1907 gave, for the first time, 
data relating to the use of machines in the brush industry. Some 
of the machines in use at that time were boring, cutting, grinding, 
polishing, shaping, planing, stamping, mixing, combing, and wash¬ 
ing machines. German manufacturers have also made use of the 
automatic boring and tuft setting machine. In fact, some advertise 
that the tufts are fastened with steel anchors, and others claim that 
they have successfully made toothbrushes with bone handles by 
machine. 

An importer, formerly representing a German firm, gave the fol¬ 
lowing description of labor conditions: 

There is no child labor employed at all in our factory. We guarantee our goods 
to be union made goods, even the quill brushes. I think the proportion of woman 
labor employed is about 60 per cent. The women work in a separate part of the 
factory and do a different kind of work. The period of apprenticeship is moved up 
from year to year until they make the very finest artists’ brushes. You see the 
brush industry is divided into a good many industries, a good many kinds of brushes. 
A factory may make paintbrushes, shaving brushes, and artists' brushes, and while 
they are all classified as brushes, each department of the factory is a separate de¬ 
partment. 

The socialist union over there controls the conditions of apprenticeship. The 
factory requires the learner to be of age so that he is able to work. The union will 
not allow men who are not of age to work in the factory. (From the statement of 
Mr. Walter Grumbacher, importer.) 

Imports and exports .—No production figures are available for Ger¬ 
many, but an idea of the importance of the industry may be gained 
from the statistics of imports and exports. In these statistics, 
however, brooms, brushes, paintbrushes, and sieves are sometimes 























































42 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


included under one classification. In 1912 the imports of these com¬ 
modities into Germany were valued at $526,694 and the exports at 
$2,757,706. For the year 1913 the imports were valued at $486,234 
and the exports at $2,913,358. 

It will be seen that Germany is an exporting country. Her goods 
before the war were shipped to all parts of the world. Great Britain 
was the principal customer, taking about 30 per cent of the German 
exports. Italy, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Argentina also took 
considerable quantities. The United States takes about 7 per cent 
of Germany’s total exports. 

Since 1900 there has been a decrease in total exports, due partly 
to retaliatory measures of foreign countries against the customs 
policy of the German Government and partly to Japanese competi¬ 
tion. 

Germany’s imports of brushes and brooms come principally from 
the Netherlands, Austria-Hungary, and France. Small quantities of 
fine hairbrushes have been imported from the United States. 

The following tables show Germany’s imports and exports of 
brooms and brushes, by principal countries, for the years 1909 to 
1913, inclusive. 

Imports into Germany , 1909-1913. 


Commodities and countries from which 
imported. 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Brushes combined with bone and horn: 
France. 

$153,510 
17,374 

$180,166 
24,276 

$211,344 
30,464 

$192,066 

31,178 

$165,172 
38, 794 

All other. 

Total. 

170,884 

204,442 

241,808 

223,244 

203,966 

Paint brushes combined with other mate¬ 
rials: 

France. 

22,134 
5,474 

19,754 
3,094 

24,038 
3,570 

23,800 
14,280 

5,474 

25,466 

All other. 

Total. 

27, 608 

22,848 

27,608 

38,080 

30,946 

Brooms, brushes, and paint brushes, coarse, 
of vegetable material; mops: 

Belgium... 

22,610 
47,600 
29,274 
19,516 

23,562 
46,886 
12,138 
17,136 

19,278 
53,550 
22,134 
15,946 

23,086 
43,316 
32,130 
15,232 

22,848 

30,94# 

26,418 

14,28# 

Italy. 

Austria-Hungary. 

All other_. 

Total. 

119,000 

99,722 

110,908 

113,764 

94,48# 

Brooms, brushes, and paint brushes of 
bristles or substitutes therefor (of animal 
origin); undyed feather dusters: 

Finland. 

8,568 
23,562 

14,042 
27,846 

12,852 
24,990 

19,278 
24,990 

17,85# 
32,844 

All other. 

Total. 

32,130 

41,888 

37,842 

44,268 

50,694 

Hairbrushes: 

France. 

12,852 
50,218 
22,610 

14,280 
10,472 
64,022 

15,708 
47,600 

SO 

9,044 

81,634 

7,378 
78,778 
19,992 

United States. 

All other. 

Total. 

,- 1 ^- 

85,680 

88,774 

93,772 

107,338 

106,148 




























































THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


43 


Exports from Germany , 1909-1913. 


Commodities and countries to which 
exported. 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Brooms, brushes, and sieves, not specified: 
Italy. 

$4,522 
4,522 
18,802 

$33,796 
20,706 
16,660 

$24 ^14 


$4,046 
4,760 
16 660 

Switzerland. 

24,038 
31,654 

24,990 
30,702 

All other. 



Total. 

27,846 

71,162 

80,206 

69,258 

25 466 



Brushes combined with bone and horn: 
Austria-Hungary. 

8 568 

11 900 

13,090 
69,734 

24,276 
104,482 

29,274 
111,860 

All other. 

39'746 

39'032 


Total. 

48 314 

50,932 

82,824 

128,758 

141,134 



Paint brushes of all kinds: 

United Kingdom. 

’ 353 192 

369,852 
104,720 
101,388 
105,196 
90 678 

362,474 
149,702 
137,326 
111,384 
71,162 
37,128 
646,408 

375,802 
105,672 
125,426 
105,434 
86,394 
34,272 
683,774 

430,066 
108,052 
122,808 
77,588 
83,300 
33,796 
713,286 

Italy.7.. 

66 640 

Austria-Hungary. 

83'538 

Argentina. 

83' 776 
71 162 

United States. 

British India. 

23,086 

23,324 

All other. 

464 338 

563,822 



Total. 

1 145,732 

1,358 980 

1,515,584 

1,516,774 

1,568,896 




Brooms, brushes, and paint brushes, coarse, 
of bristles, or of substitutes therefor (of 
animal origin); undved feather dusters: 
United Kingdom. 

126,140 

124,236 

125,426 
16,898 

100 198 

104,006 
19,516 

Netherlands. 

17' 136 

22' 086 

22 372 

Denmark. 

12,614 

20' 468 
106,672 

16 660 

15 470 

14 042 

All other. 

110,670 

132 328 

127* 568 

137,' 326 






Total. 

266,560 

273 462 

291,312 

265 608 

274,890 






Hairbrushes: 

United Kingdom.. 

290,836 

406,266 

325,584 

297,976 

336,770 

Netherlands. 

29' 274 

40,698 
26,180 

40,222 

39' 032 

47,124 

Argentina. 

82'110 

32' 844 

17,612 

18' 326 

United States. 

99,008 

129'234 

142' 086 

10l' 626 

84,490 

Austria-Hungary. 


18' 802 

3l'416 

50' 218 

59,976 
356,286 

All other. 

245,616 

254,184 

272'986 

270,844 




Total. 

746,844 

875,364 

845,138 

777,308 

902,972 







\ 


ENGLAND. 


Centers of the industry .—London is the chief center of the brush 
industry. According to the returns made in the First Census of 
Production, 1907, there were 44 factories and 55 workshops engaged 
in the manufacture of brushes in London. Birmingham is also an 
important center, but the manufacture of brushes is mainly carried 
on by small firms which, as a rule, buy the bristles, vegetable fibers, 
and wooden handles or backs ready for use. 

Materials. —England, like most of the other brush producing 
countries, imports many of her raw materials. Bristles, in normal 
times, were imported from European countries, China, and India. 
The fact that London is an important bristle market gives the 
British brush manufacturers an advantage. Bone, used in making 
toothbrush handles, is imported from Australia, South America and 
North America. Fibers are imported from various tropical countries, 
and wood for brush backs from Scandinavia and from tropical 
countries. Although England imports many of the raw materials 


































































44 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


used in brush making, she is not entirely dependent upon foreign 
countries, as many of the materials can be obtained from her colonies. 
The strength of British merchants in China assures England of her 
share of the trade in Chinese bristles. 

Methods of manufacture .—Brush making is largely handwork and 
to a considerable extent is a home industry. Some firms specialize 
in one branch of the industry; others make all classes except artists’ 
brushes—a branch of the industry carried on by only a few small 
firms in London. Machinery is being increasingly used, although 
in Birmingham labor saving machinery has not replaced handwork 
even in those shops where it has been installed. That the British 
brush manufacturers intend to make greater use of machinery is 
apparent from a report of the convention of the British Brush Manu¬ 
facturers’ Association, recently held in Birmingham. 1 One of the 
topics discussed at the convention, in connection with reconstruction 
after the war, was the unemployment resulting from the introduction 
of new machinery. An interesting feature of the convention was 
the exhibition of the latest types of filling and boring machines. 
An operator on one of the filling machines was able to insert 130 
knots per minute, and although it was not expected that such a 
rate of speed could be maintained, it was claimed for the machine 
that its output would equal that of 10 ordinary drawing hands. 

Household brushes and brooms .—In making household brooms 
and brushes, such 1 as hair, clothes, scrubbing, and the smaller brushes 
for domestic use, two methods are employed. The one is known as 
the drawn method and the other as pan work. The operations of 
the drawn method are bristle dressing, boring, drawing, and finishing. 
Bristle dressing consists of mixing and sorting the bristles. It is 
skilled handwork, and is usually done by men. Boring, or the 
drilling of holes in the brush block is usually done by men except when 
special machinery is used, in which case women are employed to 
tend the machines. Drawing consists of inserting and fastening the 
tufts in the holes by means of wire. This is a hand process and is 
done chiefly by women. Finishing consists of fastening the backs 
to the brush with glue or with pins and screws, shaping and finishing 
the woodwork. Machines, operated by men, are used for this 
process. By the pan work method, one end of the tuft is dipped 
into hot pitch and then inserted in a hole of the brush block. The 
better grades of hairbrushes, however, are made by the trepanning 
method. 

Ivory and bone brushes. —Tooth, nail, hair, and shaving brushes 
are the principal brushes included under this heading. With the 
exception of shaving brushes, these are made largely by the, hand- 
drawn, trepanned method. The shaping of the brush handle is 


i Brooms, Brushes, and Handles, May, 1918. 




THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


45 


done by men with the aid of machinery. Shaving brushes are 
cement set and are often made throughout by women and girls. 
More women are employed in this branch of the industry than in 
the household branch. The pyroxylin plastics are being increasingly 
used in making handles for toothbrushes. 

Paint brushes .—Painters’ and artists’ brushes are made by hand, 
one worker making the brush throughout. The sorting and mixing 
of bristles form a distinct trade, the bristles coming to the brush 
maker ready for use. 

Employees , wages , and hours of labor .—Both men and women are 
employed but in varying proportions in the different branches of the 
industry. In the First Census of Production, 1907, the average 
number of wage earners employed in brush factories was 9,860 and 
the average number of out-workers 1,602. Of the total number of 
out-workers only 59 were males, whereas about 50 per cent of the 
workers in factories were males. 

Wages are paid on the piece-work basis. Girls entering the trade 
usually do not receive any pay for the first month. The next two 
months they receive two-thirds of what they can earn at piece work. 
The women under whose direction the girls work receive the other 
third. After the end of the third month the girls are paid all they 
earn. Boys entering the trade receive from $1.22 to $1.46 per week 
and from one-half to two-thirds of a journeyman’s wage through the 
various stages of their apprenticeship. The rate of pay for pan 
work, which includes boring, setting, and trimming, averages 2 cents 
for 18 knots, and for the fancy or more difficult work, 2 cents for 
14 to 16 knots. The rate of pay for drawn work varies according to 
the type of work; men receive 2 cents for 36 to 60 knots, and women 
8 to 16 cents for 1,000 knots. In union shops the men engaged in 
boring stocks for drawn work receive from 8 to 20 cents per 1,000 
holes. Data in regard to the foregoing rates and to the following 
statement of earnings are for the prewar period. In a good shop 
the average earnings are as follows: 


Occupation: 

Pan hands, men. 

Pan hands, women. 

Paint brush, men. 

Borers, men. 

Borers, women. 

Drawers, women. 

Fancy drawers, women. 
Bristle mixers, men.... 

Sandpaperers, boys. 

Handle cutters, men... 
Handle fashioners, men 


Earnings per week. 

. $6. 57 to $9. 25 
. 2. 43 to 3. 04 
. 8. 52 to 10. 95 
. 7. 30 to 9. 73 

. 2. 30 to 2. 92 

. 2. 43 to 3. 04 
. 3. 04 to 3. 65 
. 8. 52 to 9. 73 
. 4.14 to 4. 87 
. 8. 52 to 9. 73 

. 5. 60 to 7. 30 













46 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


The number of working hours per week ranges from 48 to 53. In 
some branches of the trade the daily hours are from 8 a. m. to 7 p. m. ; 
and 1 p. m. on Saturday with periods of rest for breakfast, luncheon, 
and tea. The trade-unions, of which there are several societies, are 
strong and the entrance into the trades is governed by their regula¬ 
tions. 1 2 

Value of brushes 'produced .—The First Census of Production, 1907, 
furnishes the only available data of production for Great Britain. 
The quantity produced is not shown, as under the limitations im¬ 
posed by the census act it was not possible to require manufacturers 
to state the quantity of their output in detail. A number of firms, 
whose production covered about one-third of the value of the total 
output, however, reported the number of brushes they made, and the 
value per dozen computed on their returns is as follows: Household 
and trade brooms and brushes $1.28; painters’, decorators’, and 
whitewashes’ brushes, $4; fancy and toilet brushes not of bone, 
$3.60; bone brushes, $0.97; and machinery brushes, $5.56. In the 
following table the value of the output is given for the various 
branches of the trade. 


Value of production of brushes in Great Britain, 1907. 

[Figures from Census of Production, Great Britain, 1907.] 1 


Household and trade brooms and brushes.. 

Painters’, decorators’, and whitewashers’ brushes 

Fancy and toilet brushes (not of bone).. 

Bone - !) rushes. 

Machinery brushes.. 

Brushes not separately distinguished.. 

Total brushes. 

Stock, handles, etc.... 

Other products. 

Total value of goods made. 

Amount received for work for the trade. 

Total value of goods made and work done.. 
Cost of materials used. 

Net output.. 


England, 
Wales, and 
Ireland. 

1 

Scotland. 

United 

Kingdom. 

$4,574,510.00 

1,635,144.00 

807,839.00 

457,451.00 

452,584.50 

223,859.00 

$316,322.50 

145,995.00 

4,866.50 

34,065.50 

# 

$4,890,832.50 
1,781,139.00 
812,705.50 
457,451.00 
486,650.00 
223,859.00 

8,151,387.50 
92,463.50 
111,929.50 

2 501,249.50 

8,652,637.00 
92,463.50 
111,929.50 

8,355,780.50 
38,932.00 

501,249.50 

8,857,030.00 
38,932.00 

8.394.712.50 

4.443.114.50 

501,249.50 

272,524.00 

8,895,962.00 

4,715,638.50 

3,951,598.00 

228,725.50 

4,180,323.50 


1 Pounds converted to United States equivalent at $4.8665 per £. 

2 Does not include brushes to the value of $121,552.50 returned on schedules for other trades and $24,332.50 
made in philanthropic institutions. 


Imports and exports .—England imports brushes in greater quantity 
and value than she exports. Since 1911 the quantity imported has 
varied between 1,541,892 dozens in 1914 and 2,348,322 dozens in 
1916, and the value between $1,727,135 in 1914 and $2,219,810 in 
1913. Before the war England depended chiefly on Germany, 
Belgium, and France for her imports. From 1911 to 1914, inclusive, 


1 General Brush Trade. Report on Birmingham Trades. Board of Trade, London, 1913. 












































THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


47 


imports from Germany were between 32 and 36 per cent of the total 
value of all brushes imported, those from Belgium between 25 and 28 
per cent, and those from France between 16 and 23 per cent. Since 
1914 the imports from these countries have declined, England receiv¬ 
ing only 0.07 per cent from Germany, 14.2 per cent from France, 
and none from Belgium. 

England, shut off from her imports of brushes from Germany and 
Belgium, turned to Japan and the United States. The imports from 
Japan, although gradually increasing from year to year, amounted 
to only 5.7 per cent of the total value imported in 1913. The big 
increase began in 1914 when they were 12.5 per cent of the total 
value imported. The percentage was 45.3 in 1915 and 52 in 1916. 
The imports from Japan amounted to 289,259 dozens valued at 
$126,460 in 1913, and in 1916 to 1,591,561 dozens valued at $1,094,- 
344, an increase in value of over 760 per cent. The imports from the 
United States up to 1914 were not in excess of 3 per cent of the total 
value imported but since then have increased rapidly. In 1914 
imports from the United States amounted to 4.3 per cent of the total 
value of all brushes imported, in 1915 to 18.5 per cent, and in 1916 to 
22.9 per cent. England imported from the United States 26,693 
dozens valued at $56,349 in 1913, and 352,772 dozens valued at 
$481,127 in 1916—an increase in value of over 750 per cent. England 
also imported brushes from Austria-Hungary, Italy and the Nether¬ 
lands. 

The exports of brushes from England before the war averaged 
$1,150,000. They fell to $1,052,312 in 1914 and to $910,824 in 1915, 
but rose to $1,149,944 in 1916. Notwithstanding the war, England 
has held her export trade, which, however, has been principally with 
her colonies. Exclusive of reexports of brushes of foreign and colonial 
origin, the British possessions have taken from two-thirds to three- 
fourths of the total value of exports. The United States is the 
principal foreign country to which England exports brushes. The 
percentage for the United States of the total exports has varied since 
1911 from 8.4 to 12.2. In 1916 the percentage was 8.8. Argentina 
has taken from 2 to 4.3 per cent, Brazil from 1 to 2.2 per cent, and 
Germany, before the war, from 2.6 to 3.3 per cent of the total value of 
the exports. The export trade with other countries is not important. 
Reexports of brushes of foreign and colonial origin have varied since 
1911 from $68,652 to $129,254, of which the British colonies took, 
before the war, more than four-fifths, and, since the war, about two- 
thirds. 

The following table shows the value of brooms and brushes im¬ 
ported into the United Kingdom, by countries of origin, and exported 
from, by countries of destination, 1911 to 1916, inclusive. 


48 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


General imports of brooms and brushes into the United Kingdom , 1911-1916. 


Imported from— 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

Germany. 

Netherlands. 

Belgium. 

France. 

Italy. 

Austria-Hungary. 

Japan. 

United States. 

Other countries. 

Total from foreign coun¬ 
tries. 

British possessions. 

Grand total. 

$722,695 
34,260 
577,668 
428,359 
55,283 
117/828 
83,748 
45,550 
45,896 

$699,005 
35,282 
541,184 
471,058 
50,505 
94,653 
87,533 
46,981 
37,715 

$790,057 
29,588 
611,875 
423,167 
63,829 
56,948 
126,460 
56,349 
44,616 

$553,934 
32,163 
471,802 
277,265 
47,706 
18,901 
216,554 
74,681 
27,365 

$119,025 
116 
299,616 
155,665 
3,918 
832,128 
340,484 
62,077 

$1,363 
83,558 

298,662 
86,560 

1,094,344 
481,127 
48,470 

2,111,287 
12,750 

2,063,916 

6,940 

2,202,889 
16,921 

1,720,371 
6,764 

1,813,029 
24,454 

2,094,084 

8,453 

2,124,037 

2,070,856 

2,219,810 

1, 727,135 

1,837,483 

2,102,537 


Domestic exports of brooms and brushes from the United Kingdom , 1911-1916. 


Exported to— 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

Germany. 

$33,336 
8,740 
138,525 
10,638 
23,958 
38,528 
90,658 

$39,531 
9,543 
136,476 
14,551 
22,615 
40,947 
97,057 

$30,021 
11,310 
96,468 
16,103 
25,573 
34,202 
93,827 

$17,349 
6,730 
‘ 112,294 

8,025 
10,813 
44,825 
74,468 



France.". 

United States. 

Chile. 

Brazil. 

Argentine Republic. 

Other countries. 

Total to foreign coun¬ 
tries. 

British possessions. 

Grand total. 

$36,143 
96,420 
4,711 
16,775 
17,758 
59,469 

$43,774 
101,272 
13,178 
22,040 
29,360 
92,936 

344,383 

788,582 

360,720 
808,184 

307,504 
847,374 

274,504 
777,808 

231,276 

679,548 

302,560 

847,384 

1,132,965 

1,168,904 

1,154,878 

1,052,312 

910,824 

1,149,944 


Foreign and colonial exports of brooms and brushes from the United Kingdom , 1911-1916. 


Exported to— 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

Foreign countries. 

$18,785 
110,469 

$15,164 
103,408 

$21,082 
86,745 

$20,050 

70,491 

$25,598 
43,054 

$30,542 

63,917 

British possessions. 

Total. 

129,254 

118,572 

107,827 

90,541 

68,652 

94,459 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Very little descriptive material is available in regard to the brush 
industry in Austria-Hungary. As in other brush-producing countries 
of Europe, much of the work is done by hand not only in homes but 
in the factories as well. Austria makes use of machinery, however, in 
the production of toilet brushes. The automatic tooth brush boring 
and filling machine was invented in Austria. The patent rights were 
purchased by an American concern, which has since developed and 
improved the original type. Austria uses pyroxylin plastics as well 
as bone in the manufacture of tooth brushes; the former material is 
better adapted to the use of automatic machinery than the latter. 

The following is quoted from a report on the brush industry in 
Austria by Consul General Charles Denby, Vienna . 1 


$ 


1 Daily Consular and Trade Reports, May 22,1911. 


























































































THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


49 


Brush making in Austria is an industry extensively followed by the blind, it being 
estimated that 50 per cent of the workers in this trade are sightless. The blind em¬ 
ployees usually work with a seeing master, and it is difficult for a blind workman to 
obtain a master’s license. The blind employees work alone, and home work is largely 
practiced. 

The brush makers’ union prescribed nine hours of work per day, but these hours 
are subject to increase or decrease by agreement. Hours of labor are disregarded by 
blind workers and do not apply to home work. Women, both blind and seeing, are 
employed in brush making, men doing the cutting and heavy work, women the thread¬ 
ing of the hair and the light work. In cities children under 14 years of age are not 
permitted to work. In the country districts children of all ages are employed, particu¬ 
larly in home work. The daily wages of a blind skilled worker are about 60 cents; of 
a seeing skilled worker about twice that. 

Prison labor is said to be employed in making brushes, particularly in Hungary, but 
no exact information as to this feature can be secured, nor are prison-made goods sold 
as such in the market. 

There are 20 brush-making establishments in Yidnna, of which 15 are shops of con¬ 
siderable size, though there are no large factories. A trade book mentions 66 such 
shops outside of Vienna in Austria (not including Hungary). Only three or four of 
the total establishments are conducted as stock companies. 


Imports into Austria-Hungary , 1909-1913. 


Commodity and country from which imported. 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Coarse paint brushes: 

Germany . 

$3,451 

$7,034 

$7,460 

$7,929 

$12,576 

Total . 

3,451 

7,034 

7,460 

7,929 

12,576 

Paint brushes with mountings of ordinary materials: 
Germany. 

3,410 

122 

6,650 

384 

6,778 

128 

7,929 

8,640 

1,851 

All other. 

Total. 


3,532 

7,034 

6,906 

7,929 

10,491 

Paint brushes with mountings of fine materials: 
Germany. 

76,633 
8,628 
1,522 

72,573 
4,568 
1,014 

62,930 
5,583 
12,180 

43,138 
3,553 
6,598 

54,566 

8,445 

8,445 

France. 

All other. 

Total. 

86,783 

78,155 

80,693 

53,289 

71,456 

Paint brushes of prepared bristles, mounted or not 
in wood or iron, not polished or lacquered: 

Gprmariv . 

117,220 
2,631 

85,565 
914 

76,125 
1,827 

73,385 

609 

52, 678 
609 

A 11 nt.hp.r.. . 

Total ... 

119,851 

86,479 

77,952 

73,994 

53,287 

Fine bristle or hair paint brushes, mounted in wood, 
and with round or flat metal holdfasts: 
rjprm nn v . .. 

45,310 

1,948 

53,592 

487 

66,746 
1,949 

66,746 
1,949 

82,986 
6,252 

A 11 nt.hp.r__ _ ... 

Total . 

47,258 

54,079 

68.695 

6S.695 

89,238 

Other common brushmakers’ ware: 

CrPrm an v ... 

l 

18,835 

234 

78 

2,033 

20,789 
703 
78 
2,033 

21,883 

782 

23,994 
703 
625 
1,329 

23,837 

547 

625 

235 

Tt^ly. .. 


A 11 nt.hp.r. . 

2,188 

Total. 

21,180 

23, 603 

24,853 

26,651 

25,244 

Brushmakers’ ware, not specially mentioned, with 
mountings of common materials: 

frprm an v .... 

21,924 

2,680 

609 

1,218 

487 

23,386 
2,801 
1,462 
1,096 
853 

27,770 
2,558 
2,314 
1,340 
609 

32,521 
1,462 
2,679 
731 
1,827 

36,175 
4,385 
2,558 
974 
974 

Bran p.p. .. . 

Great Britain. 

United States—. 

A 11 nt.hpr . 

Tntal . 

26,918 

29,598 

34,591 

39,220 

45,066 
















































































50 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY 


Imports into Austria-Hungary , 1909-1913 —Continued. 


Commodity and country into which imported. 

1909 

. 1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Brushmakers’ ware, not specially mentioned, with 
mountings of fine materials: 

Germany... 

$33,617 
57,587 
2,046 
1,754 
1,169 

$39,171 
57,879 
3,216 
2,631 
292 

$37,709 
60,510 
4,385 

$49,402 
72,496 
3,508 
292 
2,046 

$56,125 
59,633 
4,677 
1,754 
4,969 

France. 

Great Britain. 

United States. 

All other. 

292 

Total. 

96,173 

103,189 

102,896 

127, 744 

127,158 

Brushmakers’ ware, not specially mentioned, with 
mountings of very fine materials: 

Germany. 

9,257 

974 

8,282 

7,308 

6,821 

8,282 

All other. 

Total. 





10,231 

8,282 

7,308 

6,821 

8,282 



Exports from Austria-Hungary , 1909-1913. 


Commodity and country to which exported. 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Coarse paint brushes: 

Germany. 

$487 

244 

1,137 

$4,007 

$3,879 
43 
3,496 

$5,585 

$6,352 

United States. 

All other. 

4,135 

2,131 

1,577 

Total. 

1,868 

8,142 

7,418 

7,716 

7,929 

Paint brushes with mountings of ordinary materials: 
Germany. 

2,984 
7,844 

2,284 

8,404 

4,202 
8,770 

3,654 

5,481 

3,289 

6,029 

All other. 

Total. 

10.828 

10,688 

12,972 

9,135 

9,318 

Paint brushes with mountings of fine materials: 
Germany. 

4,466 

1,218 

3,248 

9,744 

6,090 

5,278 

5,684 

6,902 

4,060 

4,060 

2,030 

2,436 

6,760 
3,004 
3,756 

Russia in Europe. 

All other.!.. 

Total. 

8,932 

21,112 

16,646 

8,526 

13,520 

Other common brushmakers’ ware: 

Germany.. 

25,700 

29,597 

32,947 
183 
214,185 
2,132 
1,401 
2,070 
14,616 

30,511 

71,171 
3,901 
226,110 
7,801 
7,865 
1,790 
12,469 

France.!. 

Great Britain. 

974 

1,157 

1,705 

58,526 
1,157 
3,349 
487 
7,308 

229,654 
2,314 
4,933 
913 
26,918 

Russia in Europe. 

Turkey in Europe. 

United States..!. 

All other. 

5,420 

Total. 

34,956 

100,424 

267, 534 

295,243 

331,107 

Other brushmakers’ ware not specially mentioned 
with mountings of ordinary materials: 

Bulgaria. 

8,867 
57,892 
3,581 
2,302 
1,535 
28,562 
23,276 
13,556 
303,610 

7,588 
53,117 
3,837 
1,364 
6,053 
32,484 
23,191 
5,627 
255,439 

9,449 
20,575 
2,737 
1,060 
3,797 
33,026 
23,136 
8, 742 
27,198 

14,217 
11,921 
1,325 
1,766 
4,680 
37,971 
34,792 
14,394 
17, 838 

3,002 
18,103 
6,358 
2,384 
4,503 
30,642 
32,673 
6,093 
28,611 

Germany. 

Greece. .!. 

Italy. 

Russia in Europe. 

Turkey in Europe. 

Turkey in Asia . 

Egypt!. 

All other. 

Total. 

443,181 

388,700 

129,720 

138,904 

132,369 

Other brushmakers’ ware, not specially mentioned 
with mountings of fine materials: 

Germany. 

548 

731 

2,558 

1,462 

914 

2,009 

914 

365 

2,375 

914 

548 

2,740 

2,923 
2,010 
3,2S9 

Switzerland. 

All other.. 

Total. 

3,837 

4,385 

3,654 

4,202 

8,222 
























































































































THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


51 


JAPAN. 

The brush industry in Japan has been in existence a little over a 
quarter of a century. An enterprising American, realizing the 
advantages that Japan offered in the way of abundant and cheap 
labor, began the manufacture of brushes in that country in 1891. 
Training the workers to become skilled artisans and finding a market 
for the product were the chief difficulties in establishing a trade. 
The goods produced in the early stages of the industry were cheap 
and inferior in quality and could not compete with the better grades 
of brushes made in the United States and Europe, where the industry 
has been established for many years. The Japanese therefore 
devoted their energies to improving their methods of manufacture 
and the quality of their brushes. They have met with such success 
that Japan is to-day (1918) one of the leading countries in the pro¬ 
duction of toilet brushes, the branch of the industry to which until 
recently" she has confined her efforts. Since the outbreak of the 
war she has enlarged the scope of her brush manufacture and is 
now offering in the American market artists’ brushes and some of 
the smaller paint and varnish brushes. The industry is carried on 
in all parts of Japan but centers in and around Osaka, where over 
80 per cent of the brushes are produced. 

Materials .—The raw materials used in brush making are nearly 
all imported. Bristles are obtained from China and Russia; bone 
from the United States, Australia, China, and South America; wood 
for hairbrushes is imported in the log, although some Japanese 
oak and maple are used; thread is from Scotland; chemicals used in 
bleaching, with the exception of sulphur, are from foreign sources, 
as are also materials for polishing and finishing and the paper and 
pasteboard used for boxes. Japan’s advantages in regard to mate¬ 
rials are her nearness to the Chinese bristle markets and her control 
of the supply of camphor, an essential ingredient of the pyroxylin 
plastics used for backs or handles. 

Celluloid is an American product. It was discovered here; it has been made a com¬ 
mercial success here by American capital and American brains. Pryoxylin plastic 
material has been made in Germany, Austria, France, England, and Japan. Per¬ 
haps the most dangerous competition to the industry that exists is with Japan, largely 
because that country controls the world’s camphor supply. There used to be three 
producing points for camphor, one Japan proper, one Formosa, and one China. 
Chinese camphor was always inferior and in recent years it has not been produced 
at all. (From the statement of Mr. D. G. Maynard, of the Celluloid Co.) 

It is true that Japan produces most of the natural camphor, but Germany made 
celluloid, I think, from synthetic camphor and produced celluloid which was equal 
in quality and price to that produced anywhere in the world. (From the statement 
of Mr. W. B. Gibson, importer.) 


52 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


Methods of manufacture .^-The preparation of the bristles and the 
shaping, drilling, and polishing of handles and backs are done in 
the factory. Drawing, one of the principal operations in the manu¬ 
facture of toilet brushes, is given out to be done in the country; 
especially is this true of the larger factories. In the manufacture 
of toilet brushes, the chief difference between the methods employed 
in Japan and in the United States is the manner in which the tufts of 
bristles are secured in the back or handle. In Japan the tufts are 
drawn into the block by hand, whereas in the United States they are 
generally inserted by automatic machinery and secured by means of 
staples or anchors. 

The use of machinery has not proved profitable in Japan. The only factory now 
(spring of 1918)using machines is being reorganized. 'Generally speaking, all opera¬ 
tions are performed in the factories. Approximately 90 per cent of the wage earners 
are employed in factories. Sanitary arrangements are crude, but the interiors are 
kept clean, especially in the drawing factories, which are generally in rural districts. 
(From the statement of Mr. P. B. T. Williams, of Williams Brush Co., importers.) 

We have in the country what we call drawing factories. These small factories are 
established in the villages, in sections where it is possible to get drawing help; the 
help comes into the drawing factories and draws the bristles into the brushes in those 
plants. The rest of the work is done entirely in the main factory and the whole 
method is based on a cost system which is modern in every way. 

The laws of Japan regarding the age of working people have changed considerably 
in the last six or'seven years. I can not give the age limits under those laws, but can 
only say that they exist. At the same time laws have been passed compelling our 
factory to put in machinery for removing the dust from the bone-shaping departments, 
which is only one item showing that sanitary conditions must be maintained. The 
bristle imported in the finished article from all countries is thoroughly sterilized. 
The method is to wash it with soap and water and to put it in a sulphur bleach. In 
addition, in Japan, we wash it with a very strong solution of peroxide of hydrogen and 
it is impossible that there should be any disease attached to the bristle when it is 
finished. (From the statement of Mr. W. B. Gibson, importer.) 

Employees, wages, and hours of labor .—There are only a few large 
brush factories in Japan. The average number of employees per 
factory or workshop was less than eight in 1915. The total number 
of employees for the same year was 4,239, more than two-fifths of 
whom were females. These figures include employees in factories or 
workshops but apparently not those engaged in home work. It is 
generally held, by those familiar with. conditions in Japan, that 
Japanese workers are not so efficient as those in other countries. 
Consul George N. West, Kobe, states: 

In a general way the output of labor, whether that of men, women, or children, is 
not equal to half that of skilled or unskilled labor in the United States. 1 

Wages are low in Japan compared with those paid in other brush- 
producing countries. The following data quoted from the report of 
Consul West, are not representative of the scale of wages in the 


1 Daily Consular and Trade Reports, May 22,1911. 




THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 53 

brush industry at the present time (1918), hut are used to show 
prewar rates. 

Washing and dressing bristles requires little skill, and the average daily wage is 
274 to 37^ cents for males and 12^ to 17^ cents for females. Few children are em¬ 
ployed; their wages run from 7^ to 11 cents a day. 

In making hair, nail, and tooth brushes, wages for females run as high as 22£ cents 
per day, while skilled men earn from $12.50 in the rough preparing to $27.50 and $30 
per month where real skill is required. Skilled laborers, both men and women, 
working at piecework in the factories earn about one-fourth more than those on day 
wages, but they do not take the short rest allowed the others. The skilled labor is 
for the most part employed in the production of the more expensive classes of brushes 
and in the manufacture of samples and new work. 

Wages in Japan are increasing, and although there are no official 
figures to show what this increase is in the brush industry, the general 
average, given in the following table of index number of wages, 1 indi¬ 
cates the trend. 


Year. 

Grand 

average. 

Year. 

Grand 

average. 

Year. 

Grand 

average. 

Year. 

Grand 

average. 

1900. 

100.0 

107.5 

112.1 

1906. 

118.4 

134.1 

143.0 

1912. 

157.2 

160.8 

1914. 

160.1 

158.6 

1904. 

1907. 

1913. 

1915. 

1905. 

1908. 






The working hours in the factories are from 7 a. m. to 6 p. m., with 
two periods of rest, one at noon and one in the afternoon. Although 
there are seven working days in a week, employees are required to 
put in only 26 days in a month. For the drawing that is given out 
to be done in the country, there are no regular working hours. 
Families, including small children, engaged on this kind of work, do it 
when not occupied with their small farms, chiefly on rainy days and 
at night. 

In regard to government assistance in the brush industry, Mr. G. S. 
Gibson states that the Japanese Government does not subsidize 
brush manufacturers. 

Imports and exports .—Statistics of imports of brushes are not shown 
in official publications. There is not much of a market for good 
brushes in Japan even for the domestic producers. Japanese hotel 
managers supply a cheap toothbrush, which is used but once and 
then thrown away. Toothbrushes with bamboo handles may be 
purchased for 2 } to 4 cents each. Found and flat paint brushes, how¬ 
ever, are imported, as are various household brushes, which up to the 
present time (1918) have not been produced to any extent. 

Practically all of the better grades of brushes made in Japan are 
exported. For the 10 years 1907 to 1916, the value of toothbrushes 
exported ranged from 24 to 29 cents per dozen; hairbrushes from 
$1.42 to 82.30 per dozen; nail brushes 34 to 58 cents per dozen; and 


i Thirty-second Statistical Report of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Japan. 




































f 


54 THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 

clothing brushes $0.85 to $1.60 per dozen. The various kinds of 
brushes exported show a general tendency to decline in value. The 
United States is Japan’s best customer. In only two years since 1907 
has the United States taken less than 50 per cent of the total value 
of brushes exported by Japan. The percentage fell to 33.18 in 1915 
and to 40.48 in 1916. In these years Japan increased the percentage 
of exports to Great Britain and other countries, because of the activ¬ 
ities of British agents in making purchases for their Government and 
because of the decrease in exports by the brush-producing countries 
of Europe. Complete statistics of Japanese exports for the year 1917 
are not available. In this year the total value of all brushes ex¬ 
ported to all countries amounted to $3,025,134 divided as follows: 
Toothbrushes, 5,224,895 dozens valued at $1,960,793; hairbrushes, 
416,310 dozens valued at $526,344; nail brushes, 370,772 dozens 
valued at $138,658; clothing brushes, 176,699 dozens valued at 
$160,408; all other brushes valued at $238,931. Compared with the 
exports of the previous year, there were large increases in the ex¬ 
ports of tooth, clothing, and all other brushes, and decreases in the 
exports of hair and nail brushes. The following tables give statis¬ 
tics of production for the years 1906 to 1916, inclusive, and of ex¬ 
ports for the years 1907 to 1916, inclusive. 

Quantity and value of brushes produced in Japan, 1906-1916. 1 



Number 
of fac- 

Employees. 

Total brushes. 

Year. 

tories or 

. 






work¬ 

shops. 

Total. 

Male. 

Female. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

1906. 

213 

3,118 

1,470 

1,648 

4,450,448 

$1,129,805 

1907. 

259 

3,230 

1,567 

1,663 

4,132,210 

1,365,793 

1908. 

277 

3,091 

1,584 

1,507 

5,514,195 

1, 757,175 

1909. 

301 

3,197 

1,803 

1,394 

5,280,369 

1,427,513 

1910. 

288 

3,258 

1,905 

1,353 

5,037,087 

1,472, 410 

1911. 

402 

3,277 

1,790 

1,487 

5,885,174 

1,309,626 

1912. 

387 

2,976 

1,605 

1,371 

4,290, 754 

1,173,826 

1913. 

436 

3,311 

1,915 

1,396 

6,302,388 

1,676,370 

1914. 

468 

3,683 

2,003 

1,680 

5,280,911 

1,600,358 

1915. 

552 

4,239 

2,356 

1,883 

4,809,169 

1,686,977 

1916. 

667 

5,485 

2,947 

* 

2,538 

6,213,158 

2,145,820 


Tooth brushes. 


Hair brushes. 


Year. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

1906. 

4,228,932 

$624,109 
777,226 
1,140,526 

105,267 
79,798 
111,049 

$87,952 
97,134 

1907. 

3', 938', 661 
5,331,234 

1908. 

187', 548 

1909. 

4 , 923 ,234 

703,992 
712,603 

25i; 562 

297; 846 
296,833 
204,886 

1910. 

4,678,269 
5,518,035 

23Q711 

1911. 

748,848 

116/336 
120,952 

1912. 

3,845,749 
5,652,238 
4,551,875 

649,483 
1,036,600 
973,824 

212,000 

1913. 

20L913 

242 072 

1914. 

209' 777 

250 496 

1915. 

3, 757,794 
4,782,581 

827,756 
1,032,497 

329,298 
199,994 

436 725 

1916. 

350,277 



thirty-second Statistical Report of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Japan. (Yen 
converted to United States money at $0,498 per yen.) 























































THE BEUSH INDUSTEY 


55 


Quantity and value ef brushes produced in Japan, 1906-1916— Continued. 


Year. 

Paste brushes.i 

Other brushes. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

1906. 



116,249 
113,751 
71,912 
105,573 
127,107 
250,803 
324,053 
448,237 
519,259 
587,721 
1,077,311 

£417 744 

1907. 



491,433 
429,101 
425 675 

1908. 



1909. 



1910. 



462,974 
355,892 
312,343 
397,698 
376,038 
370,842 
716,661 

1911. 



1912. 



1913. 



1914. 



1915. 

134,356 

153,272 

$51,654 
46,385 

1916. 



1 Not separately stated prior to 1915. 


Ten years’ record of Japanese brush exports, 1907-1916J 


Year. 

Total brush exports to— 

Toothbrush exports to— 

All 

countries. 

United States. 

All countries. 

United States. 

Value. 

Value. 

Percent 
of total 
value 
to all 
coun¬ 
tries. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Percent 
of total 
quanti¬ 
ty toall 
coun¬ 
tries. 

Percent 
oftotal 
value 
to all 
coun¬ 
tries. 

1907. 

$606,132 

$405,400 

66.88 

1,298,800 

$361,952 

817,111 

$243,807 

62.94 

67.35 

1908. 

560,498 

403,370 

71.96 

1,238,158 

347,386 

857, 274 

252,121 

69.23 

72.57 

1909. 

599,924 

413,924 

68.99 

1,275,750 

362,526 

816,231 

252,027 

63.98 

69.51 

1910. 

862,699 

631,718 

73.22 

1,879,108 

542,817 

1,297,484 

395,129 

69.04 

72. 79 

1911. 

1,002,206 

636,629 

63.52 

1,756,744 

456,637 

987,843 

272,350 

56.23 

59. 64 

1912. 

936,759 

510,916 

54.54 

1,886,518 

467,536 

902,625 

246,659 

47.84 

52.76 

1913. 

1,137,497 

622,512 

54.71 

1,611,527 

407,326 

647,235 

190,713 

40.16 

46.82 

1914. 

1,342,258 

744,291 

55.45 

1,895,042 

530,672 

844,207 

274,831 

44.55 

51. 78 

1915. 

1,928,268 

639,990 

33.18 

3,165,938 

765,035 

984,667 

228,831 

31.10 

29.91 

1916. 

2,640,249 

1,068,928 

40.48 

3,602,017 

1,011,521 

1,421,863 

444,736 

39.47 

43.97 


Year. 

Hairbrush exports to— 

All countries. 

United States. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total quan¬ 
tity to all 
countries. 

Per cent of 
total value 
to all sj j 
countries. 

1907. 

49,591 

$114,006 

34,294 

$87,172 

69.15 

76.46 

1908. 

54,019 

105,620 

43,244 

87,501 

80.05 

82.84 

1909. 

56,151 

108,189 

41,179 

82,465 

73.33 

76.22 

1910. 

90,120 

155,516 

71,205 

125,047 

79.01 

80.41 

1911. 

125,043 

223,533 

81,116 

153,263 

64.87 

68.56 

1912. 

166,014 

285,244 

89,983 

168,754 

54.20 

59.16 

1913.,. 

272,894 

463,282 

165,476 

292,007 

60.63 

63.03 

1914. 

286,585 

456,484 

176,504 

266,909 

61.58 

58.47 

1915. 

416,624 

759,202 

140,217 

251,701 

33. 65 

33.15 

1916.. 

769,358 

1,092,085 

261,063 

451,344 

33.93 

41.33 


1 Annual return of the foreign trade of the Empire of Japan. Yen converted into United States money, 
at $0,498 per yen. 




























































































56 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY 


Ten years' record of Japanese brush exports, 1907-1916 —Continued. 


Nailbrush exports to— 


Year. 

All countries. 

United States. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total quan¬ 
tity to all 
countries. 

Per cent of 
total value 
to all 
countries. 

1907. 

134,484 

*71,119 

106,076 

$51,806 

78.87 

72.85 

1908. 

107,575 

57, 705 

82,302 

41,164 

76.50 

71.33 

1909. 

91,482 

52,303 

66,006 

34,145 

72.15 

65. 28 

1910. 

156,392 

73,084 

118,063 

48,857 

75.49 

66.85 

1911. 

316,104 

183,824 

215,186 

114,452 

68.07 

62.26 

1912. 

251,327 

91,085 

160,246 

58,517 

63. 75 

64. 24 

1913. 

385,778 

160,077 

267, 647 

106,382 

69. 37 

66.45 

1914. 

458,617 

204,715 

302,578 

137,091 

65.97 

66. 97 

1915. 

577; 383 

195,688 

294,115 

117,415 

50.93 

60.00 

1916. 

429,415 

213,642 

229,298 

134,628 

53.39 

63. 01 


Clothing brush exports to 1 —• 


Year. 

All countries. 

United States. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total quan¬ 
tity to all 
countries. 

Per cent of 
total value 
to all 
countries. 

1912. 

50,319 

$59,053 

12,805 

$29,982 

25. 44 

50.77 

1913. 

57,803 

73,704 

9,936 

27, 567 

17.19 

37. 40 

1914. 

60,001 

96,004 

13,344 

39,592 

22. 23 

41.23 

1915. 

103, 798 

133,205 

23,745 

35,047 

22.87 

26.31 

1916. 

163,378 

139,198 

29,966 

31,839 

18.34 

22.87 


1 Included in “ Other brush exports” prior to 1912. 


Clothing brush exports to — 


Year. 

All coun¬ 
tries. 

United States. 

Value. 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total value 
to all 
countries. 

1907. . . . . 

$59,055 
49,787 
76,906 
91,282 
138,212 
33,841 
33,108 
54,383 
75,138 
183,803 

$22,615 
22,584 
45,287 
62,685 
96,564 
7,004 
5,843 
25,868 
6,996 
6,381 

38.29 
45.36 
58.88 
68.68 
69.86 
20. 69 
17. 65 
47. 56 
9.31 
3.47 

1908. 

1909. 

1910. 

1911. 

1912.,. 

1913. 

1914. 

1915. 

1916. 





















































































THE BRUSH INDUSTRY 


57 


Export of hairbrushes from Japan, 1907, 1910, 1913, and 1916. l 


Exported to— 


1907 

% 


1910 


Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total value. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total value. 

United States. 

34,294 

$87,172 

76.46 

71,205 

$125.047 

80.41 

Great Britain. 

874 

1,987 

1.75 

'964 

2,990 

1.92 

British India. 

39 

68 

.05 

1,077 

l' 267 

.82 

Canada. 

2,670 

9,768 

8. 56 

3,559 

8,548 

5. 50 

Australia. 

9,951 

11,313 

9.93 

9,567 

12; 277 

7.89 

All other. 

1,763 

3,698 

3. 25 

3; 748 

5; 387 

3.46 

Total. 

49,591 

114,006 

100. 00 

90,120 

155,516 

100. 00 



1913 



1916 


Exported to— 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total value. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total value. 

United States. 

165,476 

$292,007 

63.03 

261,063 

$451,344 

• 

41.33 

Great Britain. 

23,283 

44,389 

9.58 

276,757 

379; 770 

34.77 

British India. 

11,846 

11,318 

2.44 

46,147 

36,355 

3.33 

Canada. 

30,146 

46,803 

10.10 

47,670 

7i; 933 

6.59 

Australia. 

23,448 

36,494 

7. 88 

70,775 

81,454 

7.46 

All other. 

18,695 

32,271 

6.97 

66,946 

71,229 

6.52 

Total. 

272,894 

463,282 

100. 00 

769,358 

1,092,085 

100. 00 


Export of nailbrushes from Japan, 1907, 1910, 1913, and 1916. 1 


Exported to— 

1907 

1910 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total value. 

Quantity 

(.dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total value. 

United States. 

Great Britain. 

Canada. 

Australia. 

Germany. 

All other.:. 

Total. 

106,076 
12,659 
12,186 
2,228 
. 406 

938 

$51,806 

10,310 

5,961 

1,652 

734 

656 

72.85 
14.50 
8.38 
2.32 
1.03 
.92 

118,063 
13,715 
19,191 
2,802 
1,841 
780 

$48,857 
9,815 
. 11,100 
1,901 
993 
418 

66.85 
13.42 
15.19 
2. 60 
1.36 
.58 

134,484 

71,119 

100.00 

156,392 

73,084 

100. 00 



1913 

1916 

Exported to— 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total value. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent of 
total value. 

United States. 

267,647 
60,517 
39,898 
11,067 

$106,382 

27,200 

66.45 

229,298 
128,390 
20,423 

$134,628 
49,911 
12,727 
9,717 

63.01 

Great B ritai n _ .. 

16.99 

23.36 

Canada. 

18', 126 
5,092 

11.33 

5.96 

Australia.. 

3.18 

28,347 

4.55 

German v ... 

2 ,942 
3,707 

i;366 

1,911 

.86 


All other. 

1.19 

22,957 

6,659 

3.12 



Total. 

385,778 

160,077 

100. 00 

429,415 

213,642 

100. 00 




i Annual return of the foreign trade of the Empir e of Japan. Yen converted to the United States money 
at $0,498 per yen. 






























































































































58 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY 


Export of clothes brushes from Japan, 1913 and 1916} 


1913 1916 


Exported to— 

Dozen. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

Dozen. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

United States. 

China. 

British India. 

Dutch East Indies. 

Great Britain. 

Canada.. 

Australia_:. 

All other. 

Total. 

9,936 
6,331 
2 r 789 
3,750 
12,768 
1,518 
9,942 
10, 769 

$27, 567 
3,449 
2,804 
1,368 
10,328 
6,628 
14,245 
7,315 

37.40 
4. 68 
3. 81 
1.85 
14.02 

8. 99 
19. 32 

9. 93 

29,966 
4,047 
28, 537 
6,447 
47,008 
2,485 
20,018 
24,670 

$31,839 
2,904 
17,492 
3,779 
44,728 
2, 745 
16,487 
19,224 

22. 87 
2.09 
12. 57 
2.71 
32.13 
1.97 
11. 85 
13.81 

57,803 

73, 704 

100.00 

163,178 

139,198 

100.00 


Export of toothbrushes from Japan, 1907, 1910, 1913, and 1916} 


Exported to— 

1907 

1910 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

United States. 

China. 

Great Britain. 

Canada. 

Germany.;. 

Australia. 

British India. 

Dutch East Indies. 

All other... 

Total. 

817,111 
56,415 
80,083 
94,244 
7,176 
29, 779 
47,752 
73,496 
92,744 

$243,807 
12,620 
34,824 
30, 201 
2,531 
10,301 
6,137 
7,676 
13,855 

67.35 
3.49 
9.62 
8.34 
.70 
2. 85 
1.70 
2.12 
3.83 

1,297,484 
84,001 
72,146 
175,529 
37,918 
45,803 
35,173 
29, 896 
101,158 

$395,129 
16,023 
22,782 
57,508 
11,376 
13,008 
4,676 
3,118 
19,197 

72.79 
2.95 
4. 20 
10.59 
2.10 
2.40 
.86 
.57 
3. 54 

1,298,800 

361,952 

100.00 

1, 879,108 

542,817 

100.00 

Exported to— 

1913 

1916 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

• 

Quantity 

(dozens). 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

United. States. 

China. 

Great Britain.. 

Canada. 

Germany. 

647,235 
227,292 
136,453 
116,631 
60,095 
65,758 
49, 228 
88,951 
219,884 

$190,713 
45,236 
33,989 
38,399 
18,295 
17,817 
8,164 
7,096 
47,617 

46.82 
11.11 
8.35 
9.43 
4. 49 
4. 37 
2.00 
1.74 
11.69 

1,421,863 
425,886 
636,290 
180, 654 

$444,736 
110,046 
162,244 
58,419 

43.97 
10. 88 
16.04 
5.78 

Australia. 

British India. 

Dutch East Indies. 

All other. 

Total. 

199, 671 
101,374 
120,433 
515,846 

65,572 
16,156 
14,888 
139,460 

6.48 
1.60 
1.47 
13. 78 

1,611,527 

407,326 

100. 00 

3,602,017 

1, Oil, 521" 

100.00 


1 Annual return of the foreign trade of the Empire of Japan. Yen converted to United States money 
at $0,498 per yen. 


i 

























































































THE BRUSH INDUSTRY 


59 


Export of other brushes from Japan, 1907, 1910, 1913, and 1916 . 1 


1 

Exported to — 

t 

1907 

1910 

Dozen. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

i 

Dozen. 

Value. 

Per cent 
of total 
value. 

United States. 

’ ( 2 ) 

$22,615 

38.29 

( 2 ) 

$62,685 

68. 68 

China. 

( 2 ) 

5,046 

8.54 

( 2 ) 

2,435 

2. 67 

British India. 

(2) 

422 

.72 

•(2) 

1,789 

1.96 

Asiatic Russia. 

( 2 ) 

5,747 

9. 73 

( 2 ) 

1,689 

1.85 

Great Britain. 

( 2 ) 

2,316 

3.92 

(*& 

109 

.12 

Australia. 

( 2 ) 

13,143 

22. 26 

( 2 ) 

9,931 

10. 88 

All other. 

( 2 ) 

9,766 

16. 54 

( 2 ) 

12,634 

13.84 

Total. 

( 2 ) 

59,055 

100.00 

( 2 ) 

91,272 

100.00 

. 



1913 

' 

1916 

Exported to— 



Per cent 



Per cent 


Dozen. 

Value. 

of total 

Dozen. 

Value. 

of total 




value. 



value. 

United States. 

( 2 ) 

$5,843 

17.65' 

( 2 ) 

$6,381 

3.47 

China. 

( 2 ) 

1,784 

5.39 

( 2 ) 

5,487 

2.98 

British India. 

( 2 ) 

840 

2.54 

( 2 ) 

30, 756 

16. 73 

Asiatic Russia. 

( 2 ) 

768 

2.32 

( 2 ) 

6,728 

3. 66 

Great Britain.*.. 

( 2 ) 

5,940 

17.94 

( 2 ) 

53,658 

29.19 

Australia. 

( 2 ) 

8,480 

25.61 

( 2 ) 

49,903 

27.16 

All other. 

( 2 ) 

9,453 

28.55 

( 2 ) 

30,890 

16.81 

Total. 

( 2 ) 

33,108 

100.00 

.( 2 ) 

183,803 

100.00 


1 Annual Return of the Foreign Trade of the Empire of Japan. Original figures given in yen converted 
to United States money at $0,498 per yen; clothes brushes not separately shown in 1907 and 1910. 

2 Quantities not given. 

















































































• . ] 

' +■• 

' 


















. 

. 




' 




. 











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■ 

* I * 

- 

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. 

/ 














. 


































































GENERAL STATISTICS. 



61 









I 

























, 





GENERAL STATISTICS 


Domestic production of brushes for the years 1849,1859, 1869, 1909, and 1914.' 

(Abstract of the Census of Manufactures, 1914.) 



Number 
of estab¬ 
lish¬ 
ments. 

Wage 

earners 

(average 

number). 

Primary 

horse¬ 

power. 

Expressed in thousands. 

Capital. 

Wages. 

Cost 
of mate¬ 
rials. 

Value 
of prod¬ 
ucts. 2 

Value 
added 
by manu¬ 
facture. 

UNITED STATES. 









1914. 

359 

7,213 

6,388 

$14,333 

$3,461 

$9,327 

$17,894 

$8,567 

1909. 

384 

6,954 

4,967 

11,092 

3,041 

7,187 

14', 694 

7,507 

1869. 

157 

2,425 

278 

1,684 

691 

1,313 

2 , 695 

1.382 

1859. 

121 

2,378 


914 

594 

994 

2 097 

1 t(Y* 

1849. 

146 

2; 405 


711 

533 

638 

1.574 

936 

STATES, 1914. 



California. 

8 

15 

20 

29 

12 

30 

62 

* 32 

Colorado. 

3 

7 

9 

9 

5 

5 

18 

13 

Connecticut. 

11 

130 

153 

147 

61 

154 

299 

145 

Illinois. 

32 

395 

267 

858 

230 

619 

1,156 

537 

Maine. 

' 3 

19 

42 

20 

8 

16 

37 

21 

Maryland. 

9 

559 

813 

1,548 

297 

1,051 

1,862 

811 

Massachusetts. 

29 

1,437 

878 

3,359 

717 

2,231 

3; 910 

1,679 

Michigan. 

10 

157 

51 

325 

73 

165 

'348 

183 

Minnesota. 

5 

53 

29 

- 124 

33 

173 

244 

71 

Missouri. 

10 

43 

20 

126 

24 

50 

105 

55 

New Jersey. 

22 

822 

1,024 

1,579 

411 

888 

1,814 

926 

New York. 

107 

1,568 

1,248 

3,050 

772 

1,840 

3,835 

1,995 

Ohio. 

16 

677 

848 

1,311 

298 

732 

1,544 

812 

Pennsylvania. 

46 

385 

273 

807 

204 

597 

1,137 

540 

Rhode Island. 

10 

86 

34 

69 

38 

66 

138 

72 

Wisconsin. 

11 

129 

155 

244 

62 

93 

270 

177 

All other States. 

27 

731 

524 

728 

216 

617 

1,115 

498 


1 The manufacture of brooms and that of brushes were shown as one industry at tne censuses from 1879 
to 1904, inclusive. 

2 In 1914, toilet brushes to the value of $92,369, paint and varnish brushes to the value of $309,169, and 
"all other’’ brushes to the value of $685,399 were reported by establishments in other classifications. 


General imports of brushes into the United States, by countries , 1910-1917 .* 


Imported from— 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

France. 

Japan. 

Germany. 

England. 

Austria-Hungary. 

All other. 

Total. 

$677,091 
510,552 
281,471 
239,267 
7,377 
16,442 

$801,847 
736,781 
416,900 
256,667 
12,967 
15,904 

$749,189 
602,923 
448,550 
211,998 
36,806 
17,683 

$753,029 
604,490 
423,189 
263,812 
32,887 
11,896 

$682,003 
665(952 
514;240 
267,734 
29,734 
21,190 

$312,891 
757,421 
308,167 
221,891 
24,348 
19,471 

$265,386 
843,020 
46,330 
112,401 
6,500 
19,173 

$259.142 
1,800^300 
1,305 
121,351 
2,069 
25,809 

1,732,200 

2,241,066 

2,067,149 

2,080,303 

2,180,853 

1,644,189 

1,292,810 

2,209,976 


1 Includes small amount of feather dtisters and hair pencils. 


63 





















































































64 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY 


Imports into the United States of brushes for cqnsumption, 1894-19171 

(Under general tariff.) 


• 

Year. 

Value. 

1894. 

$550,334.15 
658,083.20 
766,142.81 

1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

784,891.05 

735,271.11 

1898. 

1899. 

891,161.35 

964,220.03 

1900. 

1901. 

1,134,395.54 



Year. 

Value. 

1902. 

$1,151,266.37 

1,238,587.06 

1,369,757.31 

1,308,763.45 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

U380; 183.92 
1,597,045.82 
1,653,347.68 
1,435,870.53 

1907. 

1908. 

1909. 


Year. 

Value. 

1910. 

$1,744,546.05 
2,150,335.09 
2,074,297.71 

1911. 

1912. 

1913. 

2,074,134.86 

1914. 

2, 171^511.94 

1915. 

l'670; 821.00 

1916. 

1,315,177.00 
2,195,659.00 

1917.. 



i Includes small amounts of feather dusters and hair pencils. 

Rates of duty and revenue derived from imports of brushes, 1910-1917. 


Fiscal year. 


1910. 

1911. 

1912. 

1913. 

1914. 

1915. 

1916. 

1917. 


Rates of 
duty. 

Imports 
for con¬ 
sumption. 

Duties col¬ 
lected. 

Actual 
and com¬ 
puted ad 
valorem 
rate. 

Per cent. 
40 

$1,744,546.05 

$697,818.42 

Per cent. 

40 

40 

2,150,335.09 

860,134.03 

40 

40 

2,074,297.71 

829,719.08 

40 

40 

2,074,134.86 

829,653.94 

40 

/ MO 

1563,158.95 

1225,263.58 

. 40 

\ 2 35 

2 1,608,352.99 

2 562,923.55 

35 

35 

1,670,821.00 

584,787.35 

35 

35 

1,315,177.00 

460,311.95 

35 

35 

2,195,659.00 

768,480.65 

35 


1 Act of Aug. 5,1909. 2 Act of Oct. 3,1913. 

Domestic exports of brushes, from the United States, by countries, 1913-1917. 1 


Exported to— 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

Canada. 

Cuba. 

$237,359 
32,650 
33,183 
25,066 
23,607 
13,954 
8,678 
5,349 
4,592 
101,854 

$191,647 
31,717 
34,572 
17,640 
27,213 
14,309 
10,561 
6,718 
2,440 
113,092 

$128,851 
39,953 
28,016 
9,618 
301,865 
12,076 
4,331 
4,440 
3,583 
72,183 

$143,421 
66,714 
29,838 
13,695 
621,104 
25,190 
28,512 
6,430 
20,921 
176,437 

$247,997 
81,252 
47,307 
56,849 
70,038 
36,947 
39,994 
16,933 
29,666 
236,647 

Australia. 

Mexico. 

England. 

Panama. 

Argentina... 

British India. 

Brazil. 

All others. 

Total. 

486,292 

449,909 

604,916 

1,132,262 

863,630 


1 Exports of brushes were not separately shown prior to 1913. 

Imports, revenue, rates of duty, production, exports, and consumption of brushes for 
representative years of the tariff acts of 1894, 1897, 1909, and 1913. 



Act of Aug. 27, 
1894. 

Act of July 24, 
1897. 

Act of Aug. 5, 
1909. 

Act of Oct. 3, 
1913. 

1896 

1905 

1912 

1914 

Imports: 

Value. 

Duties. 

Rate (per cent).. 

Production. 

$766,142.81 
$268,149.99 
35 

$1,308,763. 45 
$523,505.38 
40 

2 $21,103,776.00 

2 $327,083.00 

$2,074,297.71 
$829,719.08 
40 

^ $14,694,003.00 

2 $693,223.00 

\ 

1 $2,171,511.94 
$788,187.13 
35 

$17,894,476.00 
$449,909.00 
$19,616,078.94 

Domestic exports. 

Consumption.. 

2 $180,183.00 






1 Includes $563,158.95, July 1 to Oct. 3, 1913, at 40 per cent. 

2 Includes brooms. 

3 Census of production, 1909. 





















































































































THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 65 

Rates of duty and tariff classifications under tariff acts of 1883, 1890, 1894, 1897, 1909, 

and 1913. 


Tariff 

act 

of— 

Para¬ 

graph. 

Classification or description. 

Rates of 
duty ad 
valorem. 

1883 


Brushes of all kinds... 

Per cent. 
30 

1890 

427 

Brushes and brooms of all kinds, including feather dusters and hair pencils in 
quills.. 

40 

1894 

314 

Hair pencils, brushes, and feather dusters. 

35 

1897 

410 

Brushes, brooms, and feather dusters of all kinds and hair pencils in quills or 
otherwise. 

40 

1909 

423 

.do. 

40 

1913 

336 

Brushes and feather dusters of all kinds and hair pencils in quills or otherwise. 

35 

































■ 
























. 

* 

. 






































































• 

, 





























' 













































































. * 












































































TARIFF LEGISLATION AFFECTING BRUSHES. 


67 


























. 










REVIEW OF TARIFF LAWS. 


BRISTLES. 

With one exception, the duties on bristles, when enumerated in the 
tariff acts, have uniformly been specific. The minimum rate is 1 cent 
per pound; the maximum 15 cents per pound. In the act of 1846, 
which imposed ad valorem duties exclusively, the rate was 5 per cent. 
In 1857, in a general reduction made without specification of articles, 
this rate was reduced to 4 per cent ad valorem. 

In the act of 1804 bristles of swine and in the act of 1841 bristles 
of all kinds were admitted to free entry. Since the act of 1890 a dis¬ 
tinction has been made between bristles crude, or not sorted, bunched, 
or prepared, and those advanced in condition. The former have been 
exempt from duty and the latter dutiable at 7\ cents per pound, 
except under the act of 1913, which reduced the rate to 7 cents per 
pound. 

BRUSHES. 

Duties upon brushes, on the other hand, have always been ad 
valorem. The rate has varied from 7\ per cent in 1789 to 40 per 
cent in 1864, 1890, 1897, and 1909. Thirty per cent was imposed in 
the acts of 1816, 1842, 1846, 1861, and 1883, and 35 per cent in 1862, 
1894, and 1913. In 1883 hair pencils, and since then hair pencils and 
feather dusters, have been classified with brushes at the same rate 
of duty. 

The provision for bristles and brushes in the tariff act of October 3, 
1913, are as follows: 

BRUSHES. 

Par. 336. * * * brushes and feather dusters of all kinds, and hair pencils in 

quills or otherwise, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. 

BRISTLES. 

Par. 337. Bristles, sorted, bunched, or prepared, seven cents per pound. 

Par. 432. Bristles, crude, not sorted, bunched, or prepared. Free. 


69 















' 






• . i| 






















' j ;.f> ti 1 J ;• 










































































ABSTRACT OF TREASURY AND COURT DECISIONS RELATING 

TO BRUSHES. 

BRISTLES AND OTHER MATERIALS FOR BRUSHES. 

BRISTLES. 

Under the system of partial revision from time to time in tariff 
legislation prior to 1883 hog’s bristles, which were separately classified 
in the act of 1864, were held not included in the general clause in the 
act of 1872 for hair of animals.—Yon Stade v. Arthur, 28 Fed. Cas., 
1274. 

But hogs ’ or pigs’ hair, not commercially known as bristles, was 
held to be free of duty as animal hair under the act of 1890.—In re 
Irsch, G. A. 1448 (T. D. 12852). 

Bristles sorted, bunched, or prepared in any manner were first 
separated from bristles not so advanced in the act of 1894. Under 
that act bristles in bunches were held dutiable as bristles bunched 
and not exempt from duty as crude. The provision was declared 
not limited to bristles prepared for brush makers’ use.—In re Lewi- 
sohn, G. A. 2993 (T. D. 15969). 

Under subsequent litigation bristles tied in bunches with their butt ends 
lying together in preparation for brush makers’ use were held to be 
bunched or prepared. The distinction was declared to be between 
absolute crudeness and advancement of one or more steps in prepa¬ 
ration for the arts. Both sorting and bunching were adjudged un¬ 
necessary, subjection to either process being deemed sufficient.— 
Pushee v. United States, 158 Fed., 968 (T. D. 28782), affirming 155 
Fed., 265, which affirmed G. A. 5483 (T. D. 24797). 

But uncleaned, unassorted bristles tied up in tufts or small bunches 
the u root” and “flag” ends mixed indiscriminately either way were 
exempt from duty as crude.—In re Woll, G. A. 4297 (T. D. 20213). 

The provision in the act of 1909 for bristles sorted, bunched, or 
prepared was construed not to include pigs’ bristles dyed and mounted 
on wire in the form of pompons or aigrettes and used for millinery 
purposes, which were classified as artificial or ornamental feathers 
by similitude.—In re Stewart Hess Co., Abstract 32296 (T. D. 33409); 
followed in Abstract 35453 (T. D. 34416). 

In recent cases, the corresponding provision in the act of 1913 was 
held to require such sorting, or bunching, or preparation as tends in 
some way toward preparing the bristles and to exclude mere bunch- 


72 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


ing irrespective of length of bristles or size of bunches.—In re Cedar, 
Abstract 37886; followed in Abstracts 37999 and 38366. 

An importation classified b}^ the collector as waste under this act 
was held to be exempt from duty as bristles, crude, not sorted or 
prepared.—In re Perry, Abstract 38178. 

OTHER MATERIALS. 

Of other materials for brushes, bass, not manufactured or advanced 
in any manner except by cutting into lengths and putting into bunches 
for convenience of shipment, was held exempt from duty under the 
provision in the act of 1883 for dried fiber and stems in a crude state 
not advanced in value or condition by a process of manufacture.— 
Appeal of P. Woll &'Sons, T; D. 6593. 

A mixture of hogs’ hair and bristles in equal parts, the hair not 
curled, was held dutiable as bristles under the act of 1883 and not 
free under the provision for hair of hogs curled for beds or mat¬ 
tresses and not fit for bristles.—Appeal of P. Woll & Sons, T. D. 
8667. 

But a mixture of bristles with goat hair in the proportion of 80 to 20 
per cent was held dutiable under the act of 1897 as bristles, directly 
or by similitude.—In re Cone, Abstract 17686 (T. D. 28626). 

Feather bristles, so-called, Manufactured from quills, were held dutiable 
under the same act as unenumerated articles and not directly or by 
similitude as bristles. In re Wilkens, G. A. 5861 (T. D. 25821). 

Merchandise invoiced as u dachshaar imitation” and classified as 
an unenumerated article was held dutiable by similitude as bristles 
sorted, etc. In re Knauth, Abstract 21282 (T. D. 29790). 

Cocoa fiber dressed, cut into uniform lengths, and bunched ready for 
use in the manufacture of brushes was held dutiable under the act of 
1909 as unenumerated articles partly manufactured and not exempt 
from duty as crude cocoa fiber.—United States v. Flatt, 5 Ct. Cust. 
Appls., 210 (T. D. 34379), reversing Abstract 33808 (T. D. 33789), 
which followed Abstract 30026 (T. D. 32858), holding bass fiber cut 
into lengths exempt from duty as crude. 

BRUSHES. 

Powder puffs have several times been the subject of decisions. 
Under the Revised Statutes of 1874, they were held dutiable as 
brushes.—Appeals of McKesson & Robbins et al., T. D. 3028 and 3114; 
also under the act of 1890—in re Shoemaker et al., G. A. 1731 (T. D. 
13351) and G. A. 2034 (T. D. 13881). But in a court case under the act 
of 1897 they were held not to be brushes in the tariff sense because 
while like brushes in use they do not resemble them in construction or 
iMaterial and hence are dutiable as manufactures of wool.—United 
States v. Borgfeldt, 153 Fed. 480 (T. D. 28142); followed in G. A. 6611 
(T. D. 28222). 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


73 


Miniature brushes imported with fans, furs, jewelry , or combs, known 
in commerce collectively as dolls' wardrobes, were held dutiable as 
toys under the act of 1864.—T. D. 569. 

But diminutive paintbrushes or hair pencils in quills, flimsily con¬ 
structed and designed for the amusement of children were held dutiable 
under the act of 1890 as “brushes" or as “hair pencils in quills" as 
more specific than “toys."—In re Kogge, G. A. 1053 (T. D. 12239). 

Doll hairbrushes Jj inches long and not unfit for practical use have 
also been held dutiable as brushes rather than as toys. In re Davis, 
G. A. 3777 (T. D. 17843). This decision was under the act of 1894. 

Miniature feather dusters, not adapted to use by children any more 
than by grown persons on gala occasions, held, in default of proof of 
commercial designation as toys, to come within the provision for 
“feather dusters of all kinds."—United States v. Scheuer, 4 Ct. Oust. 
Appls. 37 (T. D. 33224), reversing Abstract 29881 (T. D. 32842). 

OTHER DECISIONS UPON BRUSHES. 

REVISED STATUTES. 

Scratch brushes of brass were held dutiable under the provision for 
brushes of all kinds in the Devised Statutes and not as manufactures 
of brass.—Appeal of Kearney & Swartchild, T. D. 5519. 

ACT OF 1883. 

Brushes in sets with hand mirrors were held dutiable as brushes 
where the values are separately stated; otherwise by component 
material of chief value.—Appeal of Vergho, Kuhling & Co., T. D. 
6174. 

But toothbrush sets, consisting of brush and stand, were held dutiable 
as an entirety and not separately as brushes and articles manufac¬ 
tured in part of iron, respectively.—Appeal of Schlessinger & Mayer 
(T. D. 8779). 

Feather dustbrushes were held dutiable as brushes and not as 
feathers manufactured.—Appeal of John Schillito Co., T. D. 7015. 

Hair pencils with wooden or iron handles used by surgeons as swabs 
and known commercially as throat brushes were held dutiable as 
brushes.—Appeal of Lehn & Fink, T. D. 8696. 

Sink brushes were held dutiable as brushes and not as brooms.— 
Appeals of various persons, T. D. 8999. 

ACT OF 1S90. 

Flesh brushes or flesh gloves of horsehair and linen, or of horsehair 
and wool, horsehair chief value, held dutiable as brushes and not as 
manufactures of animal hair. A handle was declared not essential to 
a brush. In re Schieffelin, G. A. 1313 (T. D. 12664). 

The rule governing the marking of hair brushes to indicate the 
country of origin is whether they are usually or ordinarily marked as 


74 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


a class and not whether particular shipments are marked.—Dept, 
order, T. D. 13042. 

Quills filled with tooth powder and invoiced as toothbrushes were held 
dutiable as toilet preparations and not as brushes.—In re Kwong 
Lung Yuen, G. A. 1628 (T. D. 13207). 

Penwipers made of circular pieces of woolen cloth and flannel stitched 
together in the center and surmounted with grouped figures of pigs and 
cats, the figures composed of leather and cotton velvet, respectively, were 
held not to be brushes, and dampeners having a wedge-shaped piece of 
india rubber about 2 inches long, in place of hair or bristles, and the 
width of the brush, fastened in the stocks thereof, used in wetting the 
leaves of copying books and known as copying book brushes, were held 
to be brushes.—In re Lippincott Co., G. A. 1946 (T. D. 13752). 

Crumb trays and brushes invoiced as entireties were held separately 
dutiable at 40 per cent upon the value of the brushes and 35 per 
cent upon the value of the trays.—In re Solomon, G. A. 2477 (T. D. 
14755). 

Steel brush ink erasers were held dutiable as erasers and not as 
brushes nor as manufactures of metal.—In re Faber, G. A. 2728 
(T. D. 15235). 

ACT OF 1894. 

Haidebrooms, consisting of bunches of stiff fiber cut into uniform 
lengths and bound tightly with thin wooden strips, except at the lower 
end, were held dutiable as brooms and not as brushes.—In re Thur- 
nauer, G. A. 2987 (T. D. 15963). 

Flute swabs or brushes, used for cleaning flutes, were held dutiable 
as brushes and not as part of musical instruments.—In re Foote, 
G. A. 3133 (T. D. 16304). (See clarinet cleaners under act of 1909, 
infra.) 

An implement for sweeping, consisting of a wooden block 15 inches 
long by 3 inches wide, bound around the edges with flannel or felt, 
pierced on one side for a handle and having on the other side woolen 
strips, held to be a brush and not a broom.—In re Lewis, G. A 
3897 (T. D. 18140). 

ACT OF 1897. 

Dynamo brushes of metal and used for collecting and transmitting 
electric currents were held dutiable as articles of metal and not as 
brushes. In re Michigan Electric Co., G. A. 5390 (T. D. 24593). 
Carbon brushes in litigation under the act of 1909 were not claimed 
to be dutiable as brushes of the class herein under consideration. 
They were held dutiable as brushes composed wholly or in chief value 
of carbon. Abstract 23255 (T. D. 30601). 

Dusters composed of a wooden handle to which were attached many 
strips of woolen cloth, commonly known as “list,” were held dutiable 
as manufactures of wool and not as brushes, brooms, or feather dus¬ 
ters.—In re Melon, G. A. 5551 (T. D. 24937). 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


75 


Paintbrushes packed in separate cartons in the same case with oil 
colors in tubes and with water colors in pans, and invoiced separately, 
were held not dutiable at the rate applicable to the paints, which, 
with the brushes, did not constitute an entirety in the condition in 
which they were imported, nor were they dealt in as such. The 
brushes were accordingly classified separately.—In re Weber, G. A. 
6007 (T. D. 26246), distinguishing G. A. 5984 (T. D. 26209), holding 
boxes of tin or wood containing water color paints, porcelain dishes, 
and three small brushes, dutiable as entireties, because dealt in by 
the trade exclusively as paints. 

Buffing sticks, composed of a strip of pine upon which v:as fastened a 
piece of leather , leather of chief value, were held dutiable as manu¬ 
factures of leather and not as brushes.—In re Sheldon. G. A. 6656 
(T. D. 28383). 

ACT OF 1909. 

Bound wooden sticks about 18 inches long, having at one end a whisk 
effect produced by small shavings of the stick turned down and bound 
together, were held dutiable as manufactures of wood and not as 
brushes or brooms.—United States v. Sheldon, 4 Ct. Oust. Appls., 
330 (T. D. 33524), affirming Abstract 30952 (T. D. 33055). 

Twigs of wiBonc, closely bound together in bunches securely fastened 
at one end. and of substantial strength and apparent durability, were 
held to be of a class of brushes known as whisk brooms and not 
dutiable as manufactures of wood.—United States v. Swedish Pro¬ 
duce Co.. 4 Ct. Gust. Appls. 331 (T. D. 33525), reversing Abstracts 
31031 (T. D. 33088) and 31380 (T. D. 33217). 

A hair brush fitted with a compartment holding a comb, pyroxylin in 
chief value, was held dutiable as an article in chief value of pyroxylin 
under paragraph 17 and not as a brush.—In re Langsdorf, Abstract 
37676. 

Clarinet cleaners, consisting of twisted wire and yarn or threads 
running nearly at right angles with the wire, were held dutiable as 
brushes.—Dept, order, T. D. 32512. (See flute swabs under act of 
1894. supra .) 

ACT OF 1913. 

Brass scratch brushes used for polishing gold and jewelry, were held 
to be within the provision for brushes of all kinds and not dutiable 
as wire under paragraph 114.—In re Worthington, Abstract 36472 
(T. D. 34763). 

A patent rotary wire brush, 92 inches in length and with four rows 
composed of phosphor bronze bristles 1 inch wide projecting three-fourths 
of an inch, set spirally in a wooden stock Jj inches in diameter, with a 
shaft lb inches in diameter projecting 12 inches, used in connection with 
an apparatus for cleaning the Fourdrinier wire of a paper-making 




76 


THE BRUSH INDUSTRY. 


machine, was held to be a brush within the meaning of paragraph 
336.—In re Castle, Abstract 37023 (T. D. 34984). 

Bamboo strips about one-eighth of an inch wide and 6 J inches long , 
tightly tied together at one end with similar bamboo or with rattan strips, 
were held by the Board of General Appraisers dutiable as brooms 
under paragraph 336 and not as brushes.—In re Cowen, Heineberg 
Co., Abstract 38158. This decision, however, was not acquiesced 
in by the Treasury Department which instructed collectors to assess 
duty on such merchandise as brushes. Dept, order, T. D. 35696. 

Brushes for bottle-washing machines were held dutiable as brushes 
and not as a part of the machines with which they were imported as 
entireties.—In re Wirth, Abstract 38221. 

An oval rubber mat in which was set with glue, cement, or other 
adhesive material, bristles of the length and character of those in a hair¬ 
brush, and intended to be glued into a wooden handle, thus constituting 
a hairbrush, was held to fall within the provision for brushes of all 
kinds, directly or by similitude, and not dutiable as an unenumerated 
manufactured article.—In re Borgfeldt, Abstract 40862. 

DRAWBACK ALLOWANCES ON BRUSHES UNDER TARIFF ACT OF 1913. 

Brushes manufactured by the Standard Brush Co., of New Hart¬ 
ford, Conn., with the use of imported bristles.—T. D. 35635. 

Brushes manufactured by the Ames-Bonner Co., of Toledo, Ohio, 
with the use of imported bristles.—T. D. 37194, Par. A. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Arbeitsverhaltnisse in der Biirsten and Pinsel Industrie. Berlin, 1913. 

Brooms, Brushes and Handles, Milwaukee. (Trade Journal.) 

Brushmaking, London, England. (Trade Journal.) 

Brush Trade. Report on Birmingham Trades. Board of Trade, London, 1913. 
Census of Manufacture. Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce. 

Census of Manufactures. Canada. 

Census of Production of the United Kingdom, 1907. 

Commerce Reports. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department of 
'Commerce. 

Consular Reports. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department of Com¬ 
merce. 

Encyclopedia of the Industrial Arts, Manufactures and Commercial Products. 
Financial and Economic Annual of Japan. Department of Finance, Japan. 
Handbook of Employment in Liverpool. Liverpool Education Committee, 1916. 
Imports and Duties, 1894 to 1907. William W. Evans. 

Imports and exports: 

Austria-Hungary. Statistik des Auswartigen Handels. 

Canada. Annual Report of the Canadian Department of Customs. 

France. Tableau General du Commerce et de la Navigation. 

Germany. Statistik des Deutschen Reichs: Auswartiger Handel. 

Great Britain. Annual Statement of Trade. 

Japan. Annual Return of the Foreign Trade of Japan. 

United States. Commerce and Navigation of the United States. Bureau of For¬ 
eign and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce. 

The Japan Year Book. Annual. 

Leather, Fur, Brush Making and Feather Trades. Handbooks on London Trades, 
Board of Trade, London, 1915. 

Rates of Duty on Imports into the United States, 1789 to 1890. Senate Report, No. 
2130. 

Report on the Brush Industry. Bulletin No. 181. The National Child Labor Com¬ 
mittee of New York City. 1912. 

Report of the Tariff Commission (1882). 

Statistical Reports of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Japan. 

Tariff acts, 1789 to 1909. Sixty-first Congress. House Document 671. 

Tariff Hearings, Congress. United States. 

Trades for London Boys and How to Enter Them. Apprenticeship and Skilled 
Employment Association, London. 

Wages of Women in the Brush Factories in Massachusetts, Bulletin No. 1. Minimum 
Wage Commission, Massachusetts. 1914. 

Women and the Trades. The Pittsburgh Survey, 1907-1908. Russell Sage Founda¬ 
tion. 










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